NOTICE FORM FOUR
FORM FOUR HISTORY
1. CRISIS IN
THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM FROM 1914 TO 1945
Background of the Topic
Capitalist crisis refers to the struggles or fighting among the European imperialist powers as a result of the development of capitalism, after attaining the highest stage of imperialism that involved the expansionism and aggrandizement among European nations, capitalism had three key stages that is mercantilism,(15th C to 18th C ), Competitive Capitalism (1750 – 1860s) and Monopoly capitalism (1860 – 21st Century).
Because capitalism was built on the ground of economic expansionism, capitalist crisis were inevitable after attaining her zenith, every imperialist nation wanted to dominate the other. The capitalist crisis included:-
First World War (1914 – 1918)
Great Economic Depression (1929 -1933)
Second World War (1939 -1945)
I. First World War: Causes and Impact on Africa
Meaning: The First World War was a military conflict from 1914 to 1918 that involved many countries of Europe as well as the US and other nations throughout the World. It was one of the most violent and destructive wars in the history of Europe and the world at large.
The First World War was a pure imperialistic war because of her nature and motives of fighting, the imperialist European powers wanted to re-divide the world market among themselves, the war began on July 28, 1914 with the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary on Serbia and hostilities between the Allied and Central Powers continues until the signing of the armistice on November 11, 1918, the war lasted for a period of years, 3 months and 14 days.
The War fought between two antagonistic military camps, these were:-
Cadual entente which comprised of Britain, France and Russia later alone USA, China, and Serbia and other powers joined and became known as Allied forces.
Triple Alliance of German, Austria, Hungary and Italy which later joined by other nations like Turkey, Bulgaria and became to be known as the Central Power.
The First World War began as a local European war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia on July 28, 1914, was transformed into a general European struggle by Germany’s declaration of war against Russia on August 1, 1914 and eventually became a global war involving 32 nations.
The immediate cause of the war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia was the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife Sophia by a Serb nationalist at Sarajevo in Bosnia on June 28, 1914.
CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR.
i. Formation of military alliance system/military camps.
These military unions of the capitalist nations for self defence against any common enemy, within the imperialist European nations to safe guard their imperialist economic interests, it was agreed upon the camp-members that in case any member of the camp is attacked, other members should come out and fight together.
ii. Development of militarism in Europe
This was the competition of manufacturing military deadly weapons within the imperialist industrialized European nations aimed at to achieving their imperialist motives of their respective nations.
iii. The Balkan crises.
Many European Imperialistic countries were interested in controlling the Balkans as their colonies after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, small and defenceless states emerged in the Balkans which felled a prey to the big imperialistic nations who wanted to control them.
iv. European Nationalism
Many European countries joined this war to defend their national interest, example the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand by the Serbian student was an act of nationalist to Serbia, while the fighting to France was for nationalistic interest to regain Alsace and Loraine from Germany, the same happened to Russia, Germany and Austria.
v. Russia and Germany expansionism
Russia wanted to control all the Balkan states in Eastern Europe and form a stronger large Russian state as well. Germany after her unification and underwent industrial revolution under the leader of Keiser William II by 1905, Germany militarism and imperialism reached the climax wanted to rule the whole world, with the intention of conquering France and Russia first such conflicting interest between Russia and Germany made the world peace at stake one had to fight the other as to achieve her goals hence the outbreak of world war one in 1914.
vi. Revenge and suspicious
The First World war was fought on two key principles among the imperialist nations, for instance France joined the war because she wanted to revenge defeat of Franco-Prussian was with Germany of 1871 where she had lost Alsace and Loraine, for Russia wanted to revenge German and Austria for taking Balkans, Austria wanted to revenge assassination of Archduke Ferdinand.
vii. European balance of power
Every European country wanted to maintain superiority over another military, economically, and politically, this led to the outbreak of world war for stance Germany wanted to remain as the lion of the land while Britain wanted to remain as the Shark of the sea because it was very powerful on marine technology, such ideology made other nation to struggle for recognition hence the world peace was at stake thus the outbreak of world war in 1914 as to maintain their status quo and recognition.
viii. Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Sophia.
The assassination of Ferdinand and his wife by the Serbian Student at Sarajevo was an immediate cause of the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
ix. Attack of Belgium by German
This was also the immediate cause of the war as a military strategy Germany mobilizes and stationed her troops in Belgium to blockade and fight French troops from advancing, German attack on Belgium in August, 1914 made Britain quickly join the war attacking German.
WHY USA JOINED THE FIRST WORLD ON SIDE OF ALLIED FORCES?
USA and other nations joined the war in 1916. USA joined the First World War due to the following reasons:-
Cultural relation between Britain and USA thus pressure from the people of USA to help Britain in the war forcing USA to join the war.
The role of USA president Woodrow to create World war peace in order to establish World body to maintain world security
The loan provided by USA to allied forces USA to help them to win the war so as they can be able to pay back.
The sinking of USA ships by Germany U boat, four USA ships that were carrying food and other supplies were sunk by Germany and a number of passengers were killed.
EFFECTS/IMPACTS OF WORLD WAR ONE ON AFRICA
The First World War brought the following effects on the lands of Africa.
1. Death and destruction of African properties
The war led to the destruction of African properties especially African Agriculture and deaths of Africans who participated in the war like in Libya, Somalia and Kenya.
2. Extreme exploitation
The aftermath of the First World War led to intensive exploitation of African resources because the European nations wanted to compensate what they had lost during the war. Example, introduction of new taxes, forced labour, mineral extraction became dominant.
3. Great depression
The First World War led to the Great Depression which victimized Africa economies that led to the fall of the prices of cash crops which became a region to solve the problems of great depression in Europe. Example prices of African agriculture produce fallen, wages of social services reduced.
4. Fall of produce prices in African colonies
The war led to the fall of producer prices because of severe financial crisis that faced the metropole and colonies during the period of war.
5. Cut down of colonial government
Colonial Governments in Africa cut down expenditures in social services were tremendously reduced because of the severe financial constraints faced in the war period.
6. Rise of Welfare associations
The war led to the rise of welfare associations in the colonies which were formed as a method to intensively exploit African resources such welfare associations included Kilimanjaro Native Planters, Bukoba Coffee growers, Bataka associations etc.
7. Introduction and development of colonial schemes.
The colonial governments in Africa established different colonial schemes in order to generate big qualities and quantity as to increase export in the metropole.
8. Rise of socialism in Africa
10. Social miseries
The war led to social misery in various parts of Africa where the war reached suffering caused by homelessness, displacement, famine, diseases, fear and uncertainties.
11. Involvement of African into the War.
A lot of Africans were recruited by the colonial powers to fight on their side so many Africans were taken to work as cooks, porters, security guards and fighters; this led to depopulation in Africa and sex imbalances.
II. THE ECONOMIC GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION FROM 1929 – 1933.
Great depression is the name given to the profound global economic crisis; the depression generally refers to the economic crisis, the great depression generally refers to the economic crisis that occurred in 1929 up to 1933 during the period of inter war or it may be described as an economic disaster that originated from USA following the collapse of New York stock exchange of the wall street on 19th October, 1929.
When the stock exchange market crashed in 1929 bank depositors worried that the bank would go bankrupt and rushed to withdraw their deposited in cash, these runs on bank made many banks to fail, here depositors besiege Merchants Bank in that made the beginning of the spread of the great depression.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION
Existence of hyper inflation (high depreciation of money) that facilitated to the collapse of the economies.
Mass unemployment tremendous and unprecedented surge in unemployment. The official figures are impressive, peaking at around 6 million unemployed in Germany, 14 million in the United States, and 2.7 million jobless in Britain due to low economic activities.
Social tensions increased considerably, with a rising intolerance towards groups or individuals who were perceived to be “economic rival” or “outsiders”. Many people began to blame their neighbors for the economic collapse.
Low purchasing power i.e. inability of people to buy their basics and this was because of low economic activity.
Protectionism was by preventing commodities from other nations, was applied as one of methods to prevent depression.
Starvation, famine and malnutrition related diseases; the depression took a heavy toll on the physical and mental health of society. In Hamburg, for example, over 50 per cent of all young men were unemployed for more than two years and they were especially hard-hit by the social and psychological.
Low production of industrial goods and steady fall of price levels.
Closure of financial institution like banks because of low level economic activities.
Wide spread of economic depression in the world except Russia.
The depression also heightened the division of experience between men and women. In some cases married women workers were forced from the workplace by state legislation in a campaign against so-called “double earners” (because their husbands also brought home a wage packet.
The failure of governments to combat the depression effectively caused domestic politics to become increasingly turbulent, in much of Central and Eastern Europe, as in the Weimar Republic.
CAUSES OF GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION
First world war of 1914, this war created an economic vacuum, where by during the war many European countries were incurring high war expenditure while no production thus after the war the European nations wanted to compensate the gap of production that occurred during that period, which led to over production hence low prices on agricultural and industrial products, hence low investment which led to mass unemployment that brought low purchasing power that leads to poor welfare like famine starvation and death thus great depression.
Multi distribution of capitalist economy or uneven distribution of national economy in the capitalist nations, where by in pure, capitalist nation its only few individuals that happen to own and control production for stance in USA by the time of great depression; it was only 5% of the population that owned the economy, unlike, in socialism economy thus any, withdraw of such people from investments it affects the entire economy thus the collapse of New York stock exchange in 1929 led to the investors to withdraw their money from the stock market which led to economic depression of 1930s
Heavy loans during the fighting heavy debts from USA to France and Britain were acquired to facilitate the war even after the war more debts were got from USA like financial loans to reconstruct the war damaged European nations, the result was when the pressure to repay loans and interests became greater particularly in Europe, it created an economic situation where by huge sum of money begun flowing from Europe to USA. This destroyed international trade, thus European nations couldn’t develop but all of them depending on USA thus any problem on USA economy had to affect the entire world.
War indemnity of Germany and senseless cycle payment Germany was asked to pay huge indemnity or repatriation of 6.5 billion dollars to the victor powers first of all this amount of money was too huge for Germany which had just come from war that led to inflation, and created senseless cycle payment where by Germany acquire loans from USA as to pay Britain and France who wanted to repay the loans from USA, who borrowed Germany thus a senseless cycle payment, that any thing that would affect UA economy would affect the entire world economy hence the collapse of new York stock exchange led to great economic depression.
The collapse of new York stock exchange on 19th October 1929 this was the immediate cause of the great depression, many investor in USA and out side USA had invested a lot in USA stock exchange the fall of the prices of shares, made the investors to withdraw their shares which led to low investment that led to closure of financial institutions like banks and credit facilities, hence great depression.
Absence of international financial institution like, IMF and World Bank which would have acted as advisor and regulators of economic and financial issues in the world, like controlling inflation production, scarcity and financial regulation, etc, thus its absence in I 930s led to the great economic depression.
Over production of agriculture and industrial products after the First World War, that period was characterized with over production of agriculture and industrial out put both in the periphery and in the metro pole, this led to the fall of prices of output of industrial and agriculture, which discouraged production in the long run, thus great economic depression.
Political instabilities during inter war period this, period did not enable many European nations to engage into commodity production and international trade, it left little time for European and USA to engage in economic activities which led to poor planning that culminated into economic slump.
Bolshevik revolution of 1917, after under going the revolution Russia begun to under go command and central controlled economy, which narrowed the world market that led to the piles of goods with out market from America and in western European nations, hence economic Great depression.
Poor economic policies like protectionism were also responsible for great economic depression e.g. USA during the inter war period practiced and pursued discriminative economic policy against world economies she passed the “Mc Cumber tariff’ in 1922 to shelter her economies ad against imports of nation wishing to export more goods.
The Collapse of the Austria instalt credit bann that provided loans to European nations but collapsed in May 1931 due to the withdraw on the French funds the financial crisis was intensified in Europe.
The Recovery programme after world war one, the European nation begun to discriminate the USA goods the European nation begun the recovery of agriculture sector which led to the discriminating of agriculture products in USA that resulted the pile of goods because of fewer buyers this affected the production and that marked the beginning of the great depression.
EFFECTS OF GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION IN AFRICA
Fall of price commodity
The great depression led to the decline of African cash crops tremendously like cotton, coffee, sisal and cocoa because the demand at the metropole was also very low the peasants and the European settlers, who were the chief producers of such commodities almost abandoned the production.
Decline in provision of social services
The great depression led to the decline of provision of social services in Africa whereby the colonial government was no longer interested in the investment of social services because of severe financial crisis in Europe.
Establishment of processing industries
The establishment of processing industries like cotton ginneries, oil refinery as to increase the qualitative and quantitative output in the metropolitan countries.
Intensive exploitation
Colonial governments in Africa increased exploitation of African resources. Example land alienation was doubled, new taxes were introduced, forced labour and low wages, this aimed at compensating the financial crisis that had affected their economy.
Region imbalance
The great depression contributed to the regional imbalance of transport network whereby railway lines and roads were constructed in areas where production was high and in places that there was no transport network.
Provision of low wages
The great depression led the Colonial Governments to provide low wages especially on colonial civil servants as to minimize colonial expenditures in the peripheries.
Mass unemployment
There was mass unemployment in many colonies because the colonial government reduced the number of workers so as to reduce colonial expenditure like primary teachers, nurses, clerks and others.
Development of migrant labours
Since the colonial governments increased plantation and increased labour reserves. Example Rukwa, Kigoma, Dodoma in Tanganyika and Northern Uganda as well.
Growth of food stuff
The crisis contributed in putting more efforts in the production of food crops like banana, soya beans, cassava, potatoes, millet because cash crops had fallen in prices.
Increase in the import industrial commodities
A lot of industrial commodities were imported into the colonies as to decrease the stock piles in the metropole that had lacked market during the period of severe economic crisis.
SOLUTIONS OF GREAT DEPRESSION IN AFRICA.
a. There was an introduction and expansion in consolidating the peasant cooperative societies e.g. in 1932 the KNCU was formed, the Kagera coffee growers and many others with the aim to improve the production of cash crops.
b. They initiated grow more campaign in most African colonies by establishing more plantations and forced cropping e.g. in Tanganyika all able bodied men were supposed to work on plantations for 12 hours a day and all shops of wine pombe) were supposed to be closed during the day and only open in the evening. New development schemes were introduced like Ulugulu land usage scheme Mialo rehabilitation scheme Usukuma and Mbulu distocking.
c. The peasants in settlers economy like Kenya and Zimbabwe were allowed to cultivate the prohibited cash crops that had been preserved for the settlers like tea, coffee, cotton, etc this was aimed at increasing the quantity of cash crop production as to fill the gap in the metropole economies.
d. African education syllabus and curriculum was changed as to respond with the need of the
metropolitan, emphasis was put on handcraft agriculture, and vocational schools as to increase
production and exploit African cheap labor as a solution to solve the great slump
e. The colonial government begun to intervene in agriculture sector by providing subsidies, the
settlers classify peasant, farmers, and provide them farming implements like hybrid seeds,
fertilizers and packaging, to increase the quality and the quantity of the production.
f. The colonial government also begun to develop transport network like railway, harbors ,ports, so
as to ease the transportation of the highly needed raw materials in the metro pole.
g. Also the colonial government increased the activities in mining of gold diamond, copper, and
exploitation of African cheap labour e.g. in Kenya the Kipande system was increased from 80 days
to 160 per person annually.
h. Intensification of labour recruiting bureaus were set to encourage and recruit migrate labour for
stance SILABU in Tanganyika, railways were asset to transport labour force from labour reserves to
plantations.
i. New taxation where introduced in the colonial state to increase colonial revenues as well as to
encourage cheap labour of the Africans new taxes introduced included Hut tax poll tax, livestock tax
among others.
III. SECOND WORLD WAR 1939- 1945.
Introduction.
World War 11, global military conflict that, in terms of lives lost and material destruction, was the most devastating war in human history. It began in 1939 as a European conflict between Germany and an Anglo-French-Polish coalition but eventually widened to include most of the nations of the world. It ended in1945, leaving a new world order of the Superpowers dominated by the United States and the Union of Soviet. Socialist Republics (USSR)
The Second World War, reached in every part of the world in the five continents and in7 seas. More than 50m people lost their lives in this disastrous war, more than 22m were soldiers and more than 28rn were civilians. The real cause of this war is not known but most historians concur that it was the combination of factors that led to the outbreak of the World War II. The war begun between September 1939 to August 1945 .It was fought between the antagonistic imperialistic nations in two camps, i.e. the Berlin —Rome Tokyo axis Vs the allied forces being led by Britain, France, USA, Russia etc. The Berlin Rom Tokyo axis was defeated and surrendered.
It was also unique in modern times for the savagery of the military attacks unleashed against civilians, and for the adopt [on by Nazi Germany of genocide (of Jews, Roma [Gypsies], homosexuals, and other groups) as a specific war aim. The most important determinants of its outcome were industrial capacity and personnel. In the last stages of the war, two radically new weapons were introduced: the long-range rocket and the atomic bomb.
CAUSES OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR (1939-1945)
The Versailles peace treaty of 1919, many world historian do agree that the seed that led to the Second World War was sown during the Versailles peace settlement, the Versailles men, They had reduced Germany to a military cipher and had reorganized Europe and the world as they saw fit, this created more enemies than friends for example, Hitler promised to overturn the Versailles Treaty, for .having humiliated Germany to that extent, he secured additional support from Germany peasants, Turkey, Italy, too were ill-treated by the treaty and opted to revenge. Thus the outbreak of World War II in 1939
Formation of hostile camps, after the failure of league of nation Germany was very successful to create an alliance with Italy, Tokyo, and Japan thus the Berlin —Rome —Tokyo axis which forced France to form the Anglo French hegemony which was later on joined by other countries and formed the allied forces versus central power, it was these camps that the second world war was organized it provided confidence and increase enmity between the military camps that made the war inevitable.
Hitler and Mussolini foreign policy, these were characterized by expansionism aggression hatred revenge and domination, Adolf Hitler, the Führer (leader) of the German National Socialist (Nazi) party, preached a brand of fascism predicated on anti-Semitism and racism. Hitler promised to overturn the Versailles Treaty and secure additional Lebensraum (living space) for the German people who, he contended, deserved more as members of a superior race he wanted to make the capital of the world to be at Berlin, this created the outbreak of the World War II when they attempted to fulfill their desires e.g. 1935 Mussolini attacked Ethiopia, in 1938 Hitler attacked Austria, 1939 Hitler attacked Poland as that resulted the outbreak of World War II.
Military preparedness and rearmament, when Hitler came to power in 1933 Having denounced the disarmament clauses of the Versailles Treaty, created a new air force, and reintroduced conscription, in March 1936 Hitler dispatched German troops into the Rhineland he withdraw Germany from the league of nation and begun manufacturing more weapons preparing for revenge, this act attracted other countries to do the same thing, e.g. Britain France increased their military budget to prepare weapons. Such military readiness brought tension which brought the war in 1939.
Imperialism, Germany begin the war because he wanted to regain his lost imperial interest in Africa like in Tanganyika as well as to get more colonies in Africa for Italy she fought to get more colonies, to get more colonies and territories, France wanted to maintain and defend her imperialistic gains from Germany, while Russia was interested in the Balkans and Britain wanted to maintain her status-quo as the shark of the sea with the colonial empire.
Extreme nationalism /ultra nationalism Many European nations began to preach nationalistic ideologies that brought excessive nationalism. Germany wanted to rule the whole world, Italy wanted to form another Roman Empire, Japan wanted to control Asia such nationalistic demands led the outbreak of World War II.
Failure of the League of Nations in her major task of maintaining world peace and security, During the 1920s, attempts were made to achieve a stable peace. The first was the establishment (1920) of the League of Nations as a forum in which nations could settle their dispute. The League’s powers were limited to persuasion and various levels of moral and economic sanctions that the members were free to carry out as they saw fit. Such weaknesses were responsible for the out break of world war two.
Chamberlain appeasement policy, he was the prime minister of Britain who feared war he adopted appeasement policy on Hitler as one of the way to keep him happy by giving him loans grants pardoning Germany: debts and official visits which Hitler used as an opportunity to concentrate and to by time as he prepared fore revenge, Britain failed to punish Hitler for aggressing other nations.
Attack of Poland by Germany, this was the immediate cause of World War II on 2” Sept. 1939 at 11:00 am. German troops entered Poland, Britain and French asked Hitler to withdraw from Poland immediately but Hitler gave them a deaf ear. Britain declared war on Germany and on the same, day France declared war on Germany. Thus the outbreak of World War II.
American isolation policy led to the out break of World War II after the end of world war two USA maintained political isolation from the European nations, USA as a strong nation militarily and economically was very significant to maintain the world peace, The United States, disillusioned with the Treaty of Versailles, with the selfish nature of Allied war aims, and with the secret treaties they had signed during the war, disavowed the treaty and the League of Nations included in it, and retreated into political isolationism. Being a neutral state USA would be able to reconcile the vanquished and the victor powers but her political isolation made the war to become inevitable in 1939.
The Spanish civil war in 1936-1939, Hitler tried out his new weapons on the side of right-wing military rebels in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). The venture brought him into collaboration with Mussolini, who was also supporting the Spanish revolt after having seized Ethiopia in the Italo-Ethiopian War of 1935-1936, treaties between Germany, Italy, and Japan in 1936-1937 brought into being the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. The Axis Powers thereafter became the collective term for those countries and their allies Germany and Italy used Spanish civil as laboratory for testing their weapons, the weapons proved very effective that made Italy and Germany to build confidence in themselves. Thus inspiring them to wage a major war in order to realize their long term objectives like, to regain their lost colonies, to dominant the world.
EFFECTS OF WORLD WAR TWO TO AFRICA ON AFRICA.
Involvement of Africa into the war some African were recruited to fight on the behalf of their colonial power for stance the British colonies recruited the king African riffles (KAR) to fight on the side of the allied forces.
It led to the rise of African nationalism especially after the returning of ex-soldiers who begun to mobilize their fellow Africans to fight against colonialism after getting awareness, it was attributed both on internal and external forces.
It led to the formation of UN after the collapse of the League of Nations where by African countries become members of UN especially those that became independent.
Destruction of African agriculture and economic activities since the war reached in African soil like in Somali land, Kenya, Libya and other parts African property were destroyed
The aftermath of second world led to the intensive exploitation of African resources by the colonialist as to compensate the losses that they incurred during the war although this led to large scale nationalism if Africa.
The World War II led to the rise of USA as leading capitalist nations which introduced open door policy Neo colonialism as compensate what for having not colonized like European nations.
It led to the spread of socialist ideologies in Africa e.g. Some countries began to practice socialism e.g. Ujamaa village in Tanganyika, commons mans charter in Uganda, consciousness in Zambia etc.
The Second World War led to death and suffering since many Africans fought on the side of their colonial master. Around 100,000 Africans were mobilized in East and southern Africa whereby, many of them died, there was outbreak of diseases and hunger killed many Africans.
It led to the formation of None Allied Movement (NAM) which was formed in 1955 in Bundug Indonesia whereby neutral nations who did not belong in side, i.e. capitalism or communism.
Collapse of Italian colonialism in Africa the war marked the end of Italian imperialism in Africa following the defeat of central axis Italy lost her colonies of Libya and Eritrea.
Transfer the mandatory territories to the UN trust ship and the trust territories were put under the supervision of the UN which included Tanganyika Namibia, Rwanda Burundi and many others.
Intensification of exploitation in the colonies measures were taken in te colonies to increase raw materials in the metro pole, a lot of exports were needed from the colonies were needed to rebuild the war ruined Europe, for example new taxes were introduced, land alienation, forced cropping, processing industries.
Development of rural urban protest, which was attributed to extreme exploitation in the colonies mass discontent was developed both in the rural and workers in the urban centers who manifested in the form of strikes and riots
Introduction of new colonial economic and social reforms and social policies in the colonies for example import substation industries were encouraged in relation to education the curriculum was changed and the emphasis was put on hand work and agriculture as to envisage qualitative and quantitative production.
Led to environment degradation in the colonies. Was caused due to over use of the environment during that period as to create enough commodity for export in the metro pole for example land became exhausted.
State intervention in the colonial economy. The colonial state became increasingly
involved in organizing coordinating and controlling commodity production in the colonies where by it involved in marketing of export commodities by creating export marketing boards, for Example Coffee marketing board in Kagera Lint marketing board in Uganda.
Background of the Topic
Capitalist crisis refers to the struggles or fighting among the European imperialist powers as a result of the development of capitalism, after attaining the highest stage of imperialism that involved the expansionism and aggrandizement among European nations, capitalism had three key stages that is mercantilism,(15th C to 18th C ), Competitive Capitalism (1750 – 1860s) and Monopoly capitalism (1860 – 21st Century).
Because capitalism was built on the ground of economic expansionism, capitalist crisis were inevitable after attaining her zenith, every imperialist nation wanted to dominate the other. The capitalist crisis included:-
First World War (1914 – 1918)
Great Economic Depression (1929 -1933)
Second World War (1939 -1945)
I. First World War: Causes and Impact on Africa
Meaning: The First World War was a military conflict from 1914 to 1918 that involved many countries of Europe as well as the US and other nations throughout the World. It was one of the most violent and destructive wars in the history of Europe and the world at large.
The First World War was a pure imperialistic war because of her nature and motives of fighting, the imperialist European powers wanted to re-divide the world market among themselves, the war began on July 28, 1914 with the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary on Serbia and hostilities between the Allied and Central Powers continues until the signing of the armistice on November 11, 1918, the war lasted for a period of years, 3 months and 14 days.
The War fought between two antagonistic military camps, these were:-
Cadual entente which comprised of Britain, France and Russia later alone USA, China, and Serbia and other powers joined and became known as Allied forces.
Triple Alliance of German, Austria, Hungary and Italy which later joined by other nations like Turkey, Bulgaria and became to be known as the Central Power.
The First World War began as a local European war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia on July 28, 1914, was transformed into a general European struggle by Germany’s declaration of war against Russia on August 1, 1914 and eventually became a global war involving 32 nations.
The immediate cause of the war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia was the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife Sophia by a Serb nationalist at Sarajevo in Bosnia on June 28, 1914.
CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR.
i. Formation of military alliance system/military camps.
These military unions of the capitalist nations for self defence against any common enemy, within the imperialist European nations to safe guard their imperialist economic interests, it was agreed upon the camp-members that in case any member of the camp is attacked, other members should come out and fight together.
ii. Development of militarism in Europe
This was the competition of manufacturing military deadly weapons within the imperialist industrialized European nations aimed at to achieving their imperialist motives of their respective nations.
iii. The Balkan crises.
Many European Imperialistic countries were interested in controlling the Balkans as their colonies after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, small and defenceless states emerged in the Balkans which felled a prey to the big imperialistic nations who wanted to control them.
iv. European Nationalism
Many European countries joined this war to defend their national interest, example the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand by the Serbian student was an act of nationalist to Serbia, while the fighting to France was for nationalistic interest to regain Alsace and Loraine from Germany, the same happened to Russia, Germany and Austria.
v. Russia and Germany expansionism
Russia wanted to control all the Balkan states in Eastern Europe and form a stronger large Russian state as well. Germany after her unification and underwent industrial revolution under the leader of Keiser William II by 1905, Germany militarism and imperialism reached the climax wanted to rule the whole world, with the intention of conquering France and Russia first such conflicting interest between Russia and Germany made the world peace at stake one had to fight the other as to achieve her goals hence the outbreak of world war one in 1914.
vi. Revenge and suspicious
The First World war was fought on two key principles among the imperialist nations, for instance France joined the war because she wanted to revenge defeat of Franco-Prussian was with Germany of 1871 where she had lost Alsace and Loraine, for Russia wanted to revenge German and Austria for taking Balkans, Austria wanted to revenge assassination of Archduke Ferdinand.
vii. European balance of power
Every European country wanted to maintain superiority over another military, economically, and politically, this led to the outbreak of world war for stance Germany wanted to remain as the lion of the land while Britain wanted to remain as the Shark of the sea because it was very powerful on marine technology, such ideology made other nation to struggle for recognition hence the world peace was at stake thus the outbreak of world war in 1914 as to maintain their status quo and recognition.
viii. Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Sophia.
The assassination of Ferdinand and his wife by the Serbian Student at Sarajevo was an immediate cause of the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
ix. Attack of Belgium by German
This was also the immediate cause of the war as a military strategy Germany mobilizes and stationed her troops in Belgium to blockade and fight French troops from advancing, German attack on Belgium in August, 1914 made Britain quickly join the war attacking German.
WHY USA JOINED THE FIRST WORLD ON SIDE OF ALLIED FORCES?
USA and other nations joined the war in 1916. USA joined the First World War due to the following reasons:-
Cultural relation between Britain and USA thus pressure from the people of USA to help Britain in the war forcing USA to join the war.
The role of USA president Woodrow to create World war peace in order to establish World body to maintain world security
The loan provided by USA to allied forces USA to help them to win the war so as they can be able to pay back.
The sinking of USA ships by Germany U boat, four USA ships that were carrying food and other supplies were sunk by Germany and a number of passengers were killed.
EFFECTS/IMPACTS OF WORLD WAR ONE ON AFRICA
The First World War brought the following effects on the lands of Africa.
1. Death and destruction of African properties
The war led to the destruction of African properties especially African Agriculture and deaths of Africans who participated in the war like in Libya, Somalia and Kenya.
2. Extreme exploitation
The aftermath of the First World War led to intensive exploitation of African resources because the European nations wanted to compensate what they had lost during the war. Example, introduction of new taxes, forced labour, mineral extraction became dominant.
3. Great depression
The First World War led to the Great Depression which victimized Africa economies that led to the fall of the prices of cash crops which became a region to solve the problems of great depression in Europe. Example prices of African agriculture produce fallen, wages of social services reduced.
4. Fall of produce prices in African colonies
The war led to the fall of producer prices because of severe financial crisis that faced the metropole and colonies during the period of war.
5. Cut down of colonial government
Colonial Governments in Africa cut down expenditures in social services were tremendously reduced because of the severe financial constraints faced in the war period.
6. Rise of Welfare associations
The war led to the rise of welfare associations in the colonies which were formed as a method to intensively exploit African resources such welfare associations included Kilimanjaro Native Planters, Bukoba Coffee growers, Bataka associations etc.
7. Introduction and development of colonial schemes.
The colonial governments in Africa established different colonial schemes in order to generate big qualities and quantity as to increase export in the metropole.
8. Rise of socialism in Africa
10. Social miseries
The war led to social misery in various parts of Africa where the war reached suffering caused by homelessness, displacement, famine, diseases, fear and uncertainties.
11. Involvement of African into the War.
A lot of Africans were recruited by the colonial powers to fight on their side so many Africans were taken to work as cooks, porters, security guards and fighters; this led to depopulation in Africa and sex imbalances.
II. THE ECONOMIC GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION FROM 1929 – 1933.
Great depression is the name given to the profound global economic crisis; the depression generally refers to the economic crisis, the great depression generally refers to the economic crisis that occurred in 1929 up to 1933 during the period of inter war or it may be described as an economic disaster that originated from USA following the collapse of New York stock exchange of the wall street on 19th October, 1929.
When the stock exchange market crashed in 1929 bank depositors worried that the bank would go bankrupt and rushed to withdraw their deposited in cash, these runs on bank made many banks to fail, here depositors besiege Merchants Bank in that made the beginning of the spread of the great depression.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION
Existence of hyper inflation (high depreciation of money) that facilitated to the collapse of the economies.
Mass unemployment tremendous and unprecedented surge in unemployment. The official figures are impressive, peaking at around 6 million unemployed in Germany, 14 million in the United States, and 2.7 million jobless in Britain due to low economic activities.
Social tensions increased considerably, with a rising intolerance towards groups or individuals who were perceived to be “economic rival” or “outsiders”. Many people began to blame their neighbors for the economic collapse.
Low purchasing power i.e. inability of people to buy their basics and this was because of low economic activity.
Protectionism was by preventing commodities from other nations, was applied as one of methods to prevent depression.
Starvation, famine and malnutrition related diseases; the depression took a heavy toll on the physical and mental health of society. In Hamburg, for example, over 50 per cent of all young men were unemployed for more than two years and they were especially hard-hit by the social and psychological.
Low production of industrial goods and steady fall of price levels.
Closure of financial institution like banks because of low level economic activities.
Wide spread of economic depression in the world except Russia.
The depression also heightened the division of experience between men and women. In some cases married women workers were forced from the workplace by state legislation in a campaign against so-called “double earners” (because their husbands also brought home a wage packet.
The failure of governments to combat the depression effectively caused domestic politics to become increasingly turbulent, in much of Central and Eastern Europe, as in the Weimar Republic.
CAUSES OF GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION
First world war of 1914, this war created an economic vacuum, where by during the war many European countries were incurring high war expenditure while no production thus after the war the European nations wanted to compensate the gap of production that occurred during that period, which led to over production hence low prices on agricultural and industrial products, hence low investment which led to mass unemployment that brought low purchasing power that leads to poor welfare like famine starvation and death thus great depression.
Multi distribution of capitalist economy or uneven distribution of national economy in the capitalist nations, where by in pure, capitalist nation its only few individuals that happen to own and control production for stance in USA by the time of great depression; it was only 5% of the population that owned the economy, unlike, in socialism economy thus any, withdraw of such people from investments it affects the entire economy thus the collapse of New York stock exchange in 1929 led to the investors to withdraw their money from the stock market which led to economic depression of 1930s
Heavy loans during the fighting heavy debts from USA to France and Britain were acquired to facilitate the war even after the war more debts were got from USA like financial loans to reconstruct the war damaged European nations, the result was when the pressure to repay loans and interests became greater particularly in Europe, it created an economic situation where by huge sum of money begun flowing from Europe to USA. This destroyed international trade, thus European nations couldn’t develop but all of them depending on USA thus any problem on USA economy had to affect the entire world.
War indemnity of Germany and senseless cycle payment Germany was asked to pay huge indemnity or repatriation of 6.5 billion dollars to the victor powers first of all this amount of money was too huge for Germany which had just come from war that led to inflation, and created senseless cycle payment where by Germany acquire loans from USA as to pay Britain and France who wanted to repay the loans from USA, who borrowed Germany thus a senseless cycle payment, that any thing that would affect UA economy would affect the entire world economy hence the collapse of new York stock exchange led to great economic depression.
The collapse of new York stock exchange on 19th October 1929 this was the immediate cause of the great depression, many investor in USA and out side USA had invested a lot in USA stock exchange the fall of the prices of shares, made the investors to withdraw their shares which led to low investment that led to closure of financial institutions like banks and credit facilities, hence great depression.
Absence of international financial institution like, IMF and World Bank which would have acted as advisor and regulators of economic and financial issues in the world, like controlling inflation production, scarcity and financial regulation, etc, thus its absence in I 930s led to the great economic depression.
Over production of agriculture and industrial products after the First World War, that period was characterized with over production of agriculture and industrial out put both in the periphery and in the metro pole, this led to the fall of prices of output of industrial and agriculture, which discouraged production in the long run, thus great economic depression.
Political instabilities during inter war period this, period did not enable many European nations to engage into commodity production and international trade, it left little time for European and USA to engage in economic activities which led to poor planning that culminated into economic slump.
Bolshevik revolution of 1917, after under going the revolution Russia begun to under go command and central controlled economy, which narrowed the world market that led to the piles of goods with out market from America and in western European nations, hence economic Great depression.
Poor economic policies like protectionism were also responsible for great economic depression e.g. USA during the inter war period practiced and pursued discriminative economic policy against world economies she passed the “Mc Cumber tariff’ in 1922 to shelter her economies ad against imports of nation wishing to export more goods.
The Collapse of the Austria instalt credit bann that provided loans to European nations but collapsed in May 1931 due to the withdraw on the French funds the financial crisis was intensified in Europe.
The Recovery programme after world war one, the European nation begun to discriminate the USA goods the European nation begun the recovery of agriculture sector which led to the discriminating of agriculture products in USA that resulted the pile of goods because of fewer buyers this affected the production and that marked the beginning of the great depression.
EFFECTS OF GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION IN AFRICA
Fall of price commodity
The great depression led to the decline of African cash crops tremendously like cotton, coffee, sisal and cocoa because the demand at the metropole was also very low the peasants and the European settlers, who were the chief producers of such commodities almost abandoned the production.
Decline in provision of social services
The great depression led to the decline of provision of social services in Africa whereby the colonial government was no longer interested in the investment of social services because of severe financial crisis in Europe.
Establishment of processing industries
The establishment of processing industries like cotton ginneries, oil refinery as to increase the qualitative and quantitative output in the metropolitan countries.
Intensive exploitation
Colonial governments in Africa increased exploitation of African resources. Example land alienation was doubled, new taxes were introduced, forced labour and low wages, this aimed at compensating the financial crisis that had affected their economy.
Region imbalance
The great depression contributed to the regional imbalance of transport network whereby railway lines and roads were constructed in areas where production was high and in places that there was no transport network.
Provision of low wages
The great depression led the Colonial Governments to provide low wages especially on colonial civil servants as to minimize colonial expenditures in the peripheries.
Mass unemployment
There was mass unemployment in many colonies because the colonial government reduced the number of workers so as to reduce colonial expenditure like primary teachers, nurses, clerks and others.
Development of migrant labours
Since the colonial governments increased plantation and increased labour reserves. Example Rukwa, Kigoma, Dodoma in Tanganyika and Northern Uganda as well.
Growth of food stuff
The crisis contributed in putting more efforts in the production of food crops like banana, soya beans, cassava, potatoes, millet because cash crops had fallen in prices.
Increase in the import industrial commodities
A lot of industrial commodities were imported into the colonies as to decrease the stock piles in the metropole that had lacked market during the period of severe economic crisis.
SOLUTIONS OF GREAT DEPRESSION IN AFRICA.
a. There was an introduction and expansion in consolidating the peasant cooperative societies e.g. in 1932 the KNCU was formed, the Kagera coffee growers and many others with the aim to improve the production of cash crops.
b. They initiated grow more campaign in most African colonies by establishing more plantations and forced cropping e.g. in Tanganyika all able bodied men were supposed to work on plantations for 12 hours a day and all shops of wine pombe) were supposed to be closed during the day and only open in the evening. New development schemes were introduced like Ulugulu land usage scheme Mialo rehabilitation scheme Usukuma and Mbulu distocking.
c. The peasants in settlers economy like Kenya and Zimbabwe were allowed to cultivate the prohibited cash crops that had been preserved for the settlers like tea, coffee, cotton, etc this was aimed at increasing the quantity of cash crop production as to fill the gap in the metropole economies.
d. African education syllabus and curriculum was changed as to respond with the need of the
metropolitan, emphasis was put on handcraft agriculture, and vocational schools as to increase
production and exploit African cheap labor as a solution to solve the great slump
e. The colonial government begun to intervene in agriculture sector by providing subsidies, the
settlers classify peasant, farmers, and provide them farming implements like hybrid seeds,
fertilizers and packaging, to increase the quality and the quantity of the production.
f. The colonial government also begun to develop transport network like railway, harbors ,ports, so
as to ease the transportation of the highly needed raw materials in the metro pole.
g. Also the colonial government increased the activities in mining of gold diamond, copper, and
exploitation of African cheap labour e.g. in Kenya the Kipande system was increased from 80 days
to 160 per person annually.
h. Intensification of labour recruiting bureaus were set to encourage and recruit migrate labour for
stance SILABU in Tanganyika, railways were asset to transport labour force from labour reserves to
plantations.
i. New taxation where introduced in the colonial state to increase colonial revenues as well as to
encourage cheap labour of the Africans new taxes introduced included Hut tax poll tax, livestock tax
among others.
III. SECOND WORLD WAR 1939- 1945.
Introduction.
World War 11, global military conflict that, in terms of lives lost and material destruction, was the most devastating war in human history. It began in 1939 as a European conflict between Germany and an Anglo-French-Polish coalition but eventually widened to include most of the nations of the world. It ended in1945, leaving a new world order of the Superpowers dominated by the United States and the Union of Soviet. Socialist Republics (USSR)
The Second World War, reached in every part of the world in the five continents and in7 seas. More than 50m people lost their lives in this disastrous war, more than 22m were soldiers and more than 28rn were civilians. The real cause of this war is not known but most historians concur that it was the combination of factors that led to the outbreak of the World War II. The war begun between September 1939 to August 1945 .It was fought between the antagonistic imperialistic nations in two camps, i.e. the Berlin —Rome Tokyo axis Vs the allied forces being led by Britain, France, USA, Russia etc. The Berlin Rom Tokyo axis was defeated and surrendered.
It was also unique in modern times for the savagery of the military attacks unleashed against civilians, and for the adopt [on by Nazi Germany of genocide (of Jews, Roma [Gypsies], homosexuals, and other groups) as a specific war aim. The most important determinants of its outcome were industrial capacity and personnel. In the last stages of the war, two radically new weapons were introduced: the long-range rocket and the atomic bomb.
CAUSES OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR (1939-1945)
The Versailles peace treaty of 1919, many world historian do agree that the seed that led to the Second World War was sown during the Versailles peace settlement, the Versailles men, They had reduced Germany to a military cipher and had reorganized Europe and the world as they saw fit, this created more enemies than friends for example, Hitler promised to overturn the Versailles Treaty, for .having humiliated Germany to that extent, he secured additional support from Germany peasants, Turkey, Italy, too were ill-treated by the treaty and opted to revenge. Thus the outbreak of World War II in 1939
Formation of hostile camps, after the failure of league of nation Germany was very successful to create an alliance with Italy, Tokyo, and Japan thus the Berlin —Rome —Tokyo axis which forced France to form the Anglo French hegemony which was later on joined by other countries and formed the allied forces versus central power, it was these camps that the second world war was organized it provided confidence and increase enmity between the military camps that made the war inevitable.
Hitler and Mussolini foreign policy, these were characterized by expansionism aggression hatred revenge and domination, Adolf Hitler, the Führer (leader) of the German National Socialist (Nazi) party, preached a brand of fascism predicated on anti-Semitism and racism. Hitler promised to overturn the Versailles Treaty and secure additional Lebensraum (living space) for the German people who, he contended, deserved more as members of a superior race he wanted to make the capital of the world to be at Berlin, this created the outbreak of the World War II when they attempted to fulfill their desires e.g. 1935 Mussolini attacked Ethiopia, in 1938 Hitler attacked Austria, 1939 Hitler attacked Poland as that resulted the outbreak of World War II.
Military preparedness and rearmament, when Hitler came to power in 1933 Having denounced the disarmament clauses of the Versailles Treaty, created a new air force, and reintroduced conscription, in March 1936 Hitler dispatched German troops into the Rhineland he withdraw Germany from the league of nation and begun manufacturing more weapons preparing for revenge, this act attracted other countries to do the same thing, e.g. Britain France increased their military budget to prepare weapons. Such military readiness brought tension which brought the war in 1939.
Imperialism, Germany begin the war because he wanted to regain his lost imperial interest in Africa like in Tanganyika as well as to get more colonies in Africa for Italy she fought to get more colonies, to get more colonies and territories, France wanted to maintain and defend her imperialistic gains from Germany, while Russia was interested in the Balkans and Britain wanted to maintain her status-quo as the shark of the sea with the colonial empire.
Extreme nationalism /ultra nationalism Many European nations began to preach nationalistic ideologies that brought excessive nationalism. Germany wanted to rule the whole world, Italy wanted to form another Roman Empire, Japan wanted to control Asia such nationalistic demands led the outbreak of World War II.
Failure of the League of Nations in her major task of maintaining world peace and security, During the 1920s, attempts were made to achieve a stable peace. The first was the establishment (1920) of the League of Nations as a forum in which nations could settle their dispute. The League’s powers were limited to persuasion and various levels of moral and economic sanctions that the members were free to carry out as they saw fit. Such weaknesses were responsible for the out break of world war two.
Chamberlain appeasement policy, he was the prime minister of Britain who feared war he adopted appeasement policy on Hitler as one of the way to keep him happy by giving him loans grants pardoning Germany: debts and official visits which Hitler used as an opportunity to concentrate and to by time as he prepared fore revenge, Britain failed to punish Hitler for aggressing other nations.
Attack of Poland by Germany, this was the immediate cause of World War II on 2” Sept. 1939 at 11:00 am. German troops entered Poland, Britain and French asked Hitler to withdraw from Poland immediately but Hitler gave them a deaf ear. Britain declared war on Germany and on the same, day France declared war on Germany. Thus the outbreak of World War II.
American isolation policy led to the out break of World War II after the end of world war two USA maintained political isolation from the European nations, USA as a strong nation militarily and economically was very significant to maintain the world peace, The United States, disillusioned with the Treaty of Versailles, with the selfish nature of Allied war aims, and with the secret treaties they had signed during the war, disavowed the treaty and the League of Nations included in it, and retreated into political isolationism. Being a neutral state USA would be able to reconcile the vanquished and the victor powers but her political isolation made the war to become inevitable in 1939.
The Spanish civil war in 1936-1939, Hitler tried out his new weapons on the side of right-wing military rebels in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). The venture brought him into collaboration with Mussolini, who was also supporting the Spanish revolt after having seized Ethiopia in the Italo-Ethiopian War of 1935-1936, treaties between Germany, Italy, and Japan in 1936-1937 brought into being the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. The Axis Powers thereafter became the collective term for those countries and their allies Germany and Italy used Spanish civil as laboratory for testing their weapons, the weapons proved very effective that made Italy and Germany to build confidence in themselves. Thus inspiring them to wage a major war in order to realize their long term objectives like, to regain their lost colonies, to dominant the world.
EFFECTS OF WORLD WAR TWO TO AFRICA ON AFRICA.
Involvement of Africa into the war some African were recruited to fight on the behalf of their colonial power for stance the British colonies recruited the king African riffles (KAR) to fight on the side of the allied forces.
It led to the rise of African nationalism especially after the returning of ex-soldiers who begun to mobilize their fellow Africans to fight against colonialism after getting awareness, it was attributed both on internal and external forces.
It led to the formation of UN after the collapse of the League of Nations where by African countries become members of UN especially those that became independent.
Destruction of African agriculture and economic activities since the war reached in African soil like in Somali land, Kenya, Libya and other parts African property were destroyed
The aftermath of second world led to the intensive exploitation of African resources by the colonialist as to compensate the losses that they incurred during the war although this led to large scale nationalism if Africa.
The World War II led to the rise of USA as leading capitalist nations which introduced open door policy Neo colonialism as compensate what for having not colonized like European nations.
It led to the spread of socialist ideologies in Africa e.g. Some countries began to practice socialism e.g. Ujamaa village in Tanganyika, commons mans charter in Uganda, consciousness in Zambia etc.
The Second World War led to death and suffering since many Africans fought on the side of their colonial master. Around 100,000 Africans were mobilized in East and southern Africa whereby, many of them died, there was outbreak of diseases and hunger killed many Africans.
It led to the formation of None Allied Movement (NAM) which was formed in 1955 in Bundug Indonesia whereby neutral nations who did not belong in side, i.e. capitalism or communism.
Collapse of Italian colonialism in Africa the war marked the end of Italian imperialism in Africa following the defeat of central axis Italy lost her colonies of Libya and Eritrea.
Transfer the mandatory territories to the UN trust ship and the trust territories were put under the supervision of the UN which included Tanganyika Namibia, Rwanda Burundi and many others.
Intensification of exploitation in the colonies measures were taken in te colonies to increase raw materials in the metro pole, a lot of exports were needed from the colonies were needed to rebuild the war ruined Europe, for example new taxes were introduced, land alienation, forced cropping, processing industries.
Development of rural urban protest, which was attributed to extreme exploitation in the colonies mass discontent was developed both in the rural and workers in the urban centers who manifested in the form of strikes and riots
Introduction of new colonial economic and social reforms and social policies in the colonies for example import substation industries were encouraged in relation to education the curriculum was changed and the emphasis was put on hand work and agriculture as to envisage qualitative and quantitative production.
Led to environment degradation in the colonies. Was caused due to over use of the environment during that period as to create enough commodity for export in the metro pole for example land became exhausted.
State intervention in the colonial economy. The colonial state became increasingly
involved in organizing coordinating and controlling commodity production in the colonies where by it involved in marketing of export commodities by creating export marketing boards, for Example Coffee marketing board in Kagera Lint marketing board in Uganda.
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CHAPTER 2
NATIONALISM AND DECOLONIZATION IN AFRICA
What is African Nationalism?
There has emerged as many definitions of African nationalism as there are scholars who have tried to define the word. However, the following descriptions are useful.
African nationalism is a desire of African people to terminate all foreign rules. Basically, nationalism is the political will of the people of Africa in opposition of foreign domination but in favour of African rule. It represents African struggles against Western colonialism and imperialism (by Ndabaningi Sithole).
Nationalism is an expression of hostility to alien rule. In the colonial context, nationalism is anti-colonialism. Colonialism, therefore, should be regarded as one of the major progenitors-ancestors of African nationalism, because any people subjected to alien rule will struggle to overthrow that rule. The process may take a generation or a century, but it is inevitable stage (by S. Kiwanuka).
Nationalism is a consciousness on the part of individuals or groups of people regarding their membership of a nation state either already existing or to which they aspire. It is also a desire to achieve political and economic freedom over all social and economic development, as well as the cultural revival of that national state (by Adu Boahen).
Nationalism is a patriotic sentiment or activity on the part of a group of Africans held together by the bonds of common language and common historical experience to impose their right to live under a government of their own making for the preservation of their political, economic, and social interests (by K.B.C. Onwubiko).
Nationalism is the feeling of national consciousness or awareness by the people that they are members of a nation state and desire freedom from colonial rule (by Michael Crowder).
THE PROCESS OF DECOLONIZATION
The process of decolonization or national liberation was fundamental in
Africa, for it allowed African states to regain their independence, which they had lost for more than half a century. The rise of African nationalism dates back to the period of colonial conquest and the imposition of colonial rule on one hand and primary African resistance against colonial rule on the other hand. But later, the intensification of exploitation stimulated the nationalistic struggle.
AFRICAN NATIONALISM AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
Nationalism literally refers to the desire, love, or sprit for ones nation. In Africa the term nationalism has been used to signify the struggle of independence or self determination against foreign domination, in case of Europe the term nationalism has been used to signify Struggle for national unification in Germany and Italy and to acquire oversea colonies.
Some scholars define nationalism as feeling of national consciousness or awareness by the people of the same state and desire for freedom from colonial rule.
Nationalism in Africa is divided into two phases according to the period;
i. Nationalism before 1945
ii. Nationalism after 1945 before 1945.
In the first decades of colonial rule most East African communities experienced only spasmodic contacts with the white man. But by the mid of 1 920s, the activities of the government officials, missionaries and settlers were beginning impinge or to affect much more direct on the lives of many Africans. Acts like land alienation, forced labor injustice and taxation now were affecting the Africans more. As in most other part of tropical Africa the missionaries proved themselves the most vigorous alien stimu1ators of change and their success measured in the statistics of conversion, was often remarkable. But excessive missionary pressure could serve to produce countervailing African nationalism as to protect their culture.
The struggle for self determination and resistance against the intruders begun in Africa immediately after the inception of colonialism in around 1890s. The Africans started to resist colonial domination in the early time e.g. Abushiri and Bwana Hen in Tanganyika, Shona and Ndebele in Zimbabwe, Nama and Herero in Namibia. Some of the resistance was passive, while others collaborative and others active.
The period and the intensity in which the early African resistance occurred in various societies depended on the intensity of colonial activities and its impact. For example as early as the 1 890s the
people of Ghana had already forn1d the Gold. Coast Aborigine’s Right Protection Society which was
to fight against laws which had been enacted to expropriate African land. Also in 1920 the biggest
welfare association in the region was the National Congress of British West Africa in Accra. It was largely formed by the emerging African elites who wanted increased and effective representation in various organs of the state especially n the legislature.
FEATURES OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM BEFORE 1945.
Were spontaneous and ethnic based in nature /regional oriented. It lacked national scope,
every tribe was resisting alone and fight for tribal or regional interests. e.g. Kagera Coffee
Growers, Kilimanjaro National Cooperation Union [K.N.C.U.] etc
Were apolitical and lacked clear political focus, i.e. it lacked political elements they were fighting for social welfare of their society’s e.g. high wages, land alienation, and poor working conditions e.g. the kikuyu central association fought for the return of the lost land the restoration of kikuyu culture and rejection of missionary teachings which interfered with the culture of female circumcision which became common among the kikuyu in 1 920s which they regarded that the operation of clitorodectomy or female circumcision is a sign of woman hood.
They were elites’ based mostly organized by those who were working for the colonial government in urban areas they organized themselves and begun to ask for their rights, the interests they represented were mainly related to the cooperation with colonialism. E.g. Harry Thuku a clerk in colonial government services in1922 who started the younger kikuyu association in Nairobi.
Most of the resistances were easily suppressed by the colonialist in other words registered limited success e g the Maji Maji uprising, the Shona Ndebele uprising, the resistance of the Dembe people of Angola in 1907-10.
They lacked well organized and systematic form of resistance most of the uprising were sporadic in nature and generated internally rather than externally e.g. cattle confiscation, land alienation etc
It lacked the element or uniformity;- and effectiveness it was characterized by uprising in different areas and in different time.
They were mostly motivated by the restoring of the pre-colonial social order, which had been over thrown by the colonialists.
CAUSE S OF NATIONALISM IN AFRICA BEFORE 1945.
Political grievances
They lost their independence to the foreigners thus nationalism to regain their lost independence.
African rulers were thrown away and replaced them by foreign rulers who were imposed on the African that they detested and wanted to restate their traditional rulers.
Economic grievances
Forced labour to work on the colonial plantations to provide cheap labor any African who resisted was punished heavily
Imposition of heavy taxes to initiate money economy taxes like hut tax, poll tax, matiti tax were introduced as to force the indigenous to work in the plantation
Cattle confiscation as to deny African from engaging in other economic activities and resort on supplying cheap labour.
Land alienation to keep African away from practicing their subsistence agriculture and begin to supply cheap labor in plantations
Loss of control of their trade like Long distance trade and Trans-Saharan trade and the introduction of the so called legitimate trade
Destruction of African agriculture. Which was self sustaining that based on the needs of Africa and in place cash crop plantation were introduced
Social grievances.
Colonial injustice and oppression like long working hour’s social abuses and separation of men from their families.
Heavy punishment like chopping off ribs of the Africans in case of the Congo colony under Belgium, corporal punishment in Tanganyika under Carl Peter
Racism and segregation of Africans, by insulting them by their color and making them the third grade citizens on their own land
Destruction of African values and traditions and implanting foreign culture like religion language education and culture.
NATIONALISM AFTER 1945.
This refers to nationalistic activities that occurred after 1945, after the Second World War it was in this period that African was successful in their struggle at times is referred as modern nationalism. It was characterized by the following
Well organized and planned by elites African leaders those were educated from colonial schools.
It was a national wide that it covered the whole nation through opening up many branches in the whole state both in the rural and urban areas
It was led by the elites i.e. educated leaders who were focused e.g. Nyerere ,Kenyatta, Nkrumah, Obote
It was political in origin i.e. they struggled for political independence of Africa.
It was dominated by both dialogue and armed struggle, where dialogue proved a failure.
It ware motivated by both internal and external factors unlike those before 1945 which were motivated by internal factors.
It led to the independence of some nations i.e. it was successful in getting independence for African nations.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF NATIONALSM AFTER 1945.
The factors that gave birth to African nationalism are of two kinds;
• Internal factors
• External factors
INTERNAL FACTORS.
These were forces that were internally motivated, that generated within Africa societies that brought about nationalism in Africa. These included the following factors.
Formation of peasant cooperative union in rural areas to defend the interest and welfare of the farmers some associations were formed by the colonialists as to speed up the production and the marketing of cash crops as well as sensitizing peasants about cultivation, through their associations. But later alone developed nationalistic feelings and turned against the colonialists using their association’s structures in rural areas. Some of the associations included The Kilimanjaro Cooperative Union, Victoria Cooperative, Buhaya Cooperative Union etc.
Intensive exploitation after the Second World War, in the colonies the colonizers wanted to revamp their ruined economies, which ware heavily damaged by the war, large scale colonization was carried out. New measures to increase production in the colonies and to reduce metro pole expenditure on the colonies were introduced like; Land alienation to establish more plantations for the white settlers, Forced labor to work on the colonial plantations as to increase out put. New, taxes like gun tax hut tax were introduced. Etc. Such exploitation awakened African to start fighting for their self determination thus rise of nationalism mace African aware.
Formation of independent churches .These were the churches that were lead by the Africans breaking away from main stream white churches, to challenge their misdeeds over the Africans, they addressed not only religious but also social political and economic grievances of the Africans such churches included. Joseph Ejayi in West Africa, the Kikuyu Native church, the Watch tower church movement in Malawi 1906, the African national church in Tanganyika The people God and religion of Jesus in Kenya United native church in Cameroon etc Such churches openly criticized the colonialists and encouraged their followers to fight them thus the rise of African nationalism
Formation of segregated African schools, after realizing that the missionary and colonial schools taught nothing but European based syllabus some African societies began their own schools, like among the kikuyu in Kenya Africans were taught African syllabus .this helped in educating Africans and developing the sprit of nationalism.
Rise of elites who had attained colonial education like Nyerere in Tanganyika, Nkrumah in Ghana, Kamuzu Banda in Malawi Abafemi Awolowo of Nigeria ,etc this education helped them to get used to the white language to get exposed to various struggle and liberation of the world, but on top of that some elites came from outside Africa the combination of both helped to the rise of nationalism through provision of leadership for nationalistic struggles
Ghana independence in 1957, it was an example to stimulate other African nations to begin fight for their freedom so it as possible for them also to attain independence from their colonial powers
The Italy against Ethiopia war of 1935- 1941 under Mussolini and Haile Selasie and Ras Imra increased the momentum of African nationalism Italy an industrialized nation was heavily and bravery resisted by an African nation Ethiopia this boosted, African confidence to wards their struggle for independence was defeated.
Formation of social welfare association these aimed to improve the working conditions of African workers discriminations and colonial abuses to the Africans such associations largely based in urban centers and comprised colonial civil servants like; The kikuyu central association in Kenya that was formed by Harry Thuku The railway territory civil association in Tanganyika, Tanganyika Territory Civil Service Association (T.T.C.S.A)which was formed by Martin Kayamba the peoples union in 1908 in Nigeria. Such association exerted more pressure on the colonialist to consider giving African independence which led to nationalism.
Mass media especially news paper played a big role in spreading awareness among the population in both rural and urban areas such news paper included Sauti ya TANU in Tanganyika The pilot and the comet in Nigeria.
Colonial social infrastructures also played a big role in facilitating the spread and the rise of African nationalism that’s why some historian do say that colonialism sown a seed of it own destruction, infrastructures like railways roads facilitated the nationalistic activities in rural and urban centers by spreading the massage of liberations in all parts of Africa.
EXTERNAL FACTORS
These were factors that motivated nationalism but being generated from out side Africa such forces included.
The returning ex-soldiers who participated in the war on the side of their colonial masters assisting them as porters and security guards of army camps, this participation brought awareness since these soldiers were exposed to western democracy, freedom, and liberation massage some veterans like Dedan Kimathi who ware latter a leader of Mau-Mau in Kenya. Jonathan Okwiriri who became the president of the younger Kavirondo formed movements that directly opposed the colonialists.
Formation of U.N which replaced the league of nation where independent African states were allowed to participate as members it become an organization of all nations African and Asian nations through the UN opposed the colonialist and demanded for self determination, unlike during the league of nation where African colonies became mandatory colonies of European nations
The India Pakistan independences. These acted as an external pressure for the Africans to emulate both were British colonies that attain their independence in 1948 as one nation which later separated in two nations, African quoted such incidences as a negotiative tool to argue for there independence.
The Bandug conference of April 17th 1955 where Asians and Africans nations like South Africa Ghana Nigeria Egypt Libya met in Indonesia to discuss their problems which include colonialism and economic development, they emphasized solidarity, it was during this conference that. N.A.M. was formed in this conference.
Rise of communism in U.S.S.R the Second World War witnessed the expansion and consolidation of the communist bloc Russia begun to provide material and moral support for anti-colonial struggle for African e.g. it supported rebel groups in Angola and Namibia to fight colonialists.
Marshal plan, this was initiated by George Marshall the prime minister of U.S.A, whereby he began giving loans to the war ruined European nations on conditions that they should decolonize in Africa arid Asian nations, by granting independence to those nations.
Open- door policy of U.S.A. U.S.A introduced a policy of conducting business with Independent African states thus it begun requesting colonialist to give independence to the African countries so as to do business with US.
Formation of Pan-Africanize in 1900 by William Sylvester from the new world which later led to the formation of O.A.U an organization that united all African independent nations to helped in fighting for African independence.
The British labor party which assumed power in 1945 its policies were against colonialism which, they viewed as oppression of humanity and wastage of British tax payers money thus such ant colonial sentiments in Britain made many nationalistic movement to agitate for their immediate Independence.
The rise of USA as a leading capitalist nation after world war two US became the chief supplier of war materials and the war did not affect her economy negatively made her to became a leading capitalist nation and begun to advocate for decolonization of African nations as a trick to compensate for not colonizing through establishment of neo colonialism to get market for her finished goods area of investment for her international corporations.
The after math of Second World War to the colonialist who incurred a lot of losses and could not continue with spending to the colonies so they were forced to grant some independence to some African states. But on top of the above some European powers adopted intensive exploitation to revamp their economies, which awakened many Africans to resist thus rise of nationalism
THE INDEPENDENT CHURCHES.
These were religious Christian’s churches which broke away from European churches because of dissatisfaction/discontent with Christian missionary churches .Some of their discontents included the following:
The European churches preached salvation equality of human being before God ,while African were segregated oppressed not allowed even to lead prayers, they were taken as third citizens
The European churches also involved in helping colonizers for land alienation taxation forced labor and administration which had no any relation with the teaching of the bible.
They also realized that European churches and colonialism were two sides of the same coin that the Christian missionaries were only to pave way for the colonization process of Africa as always its said that the “flag followed the cross”.
They advised Africans concerning political and economic problems by breaking their resistance e.g. through preaching biblical doctrines like the humble people are the blessed for them will enter the kingdom of God, forgive those who wrong you.
They intervened in African culture like girl circumcision among the kikuyu people in Kenya who vehemently detested the missionary activities. That prompted them to start independent schools and begun to spread.
SOME OF THE INDEPENDENT CHURCHES FORMED INCLUDED;
i. Joseph Enjayi of West Africa.
ii. The Kikuyu Orthodox church of Kenya.
iii. The African National church of Tanganyika.
iv. The Independent church movement in Zaire by Simon Kimbanga.
v. The Ethiopian church in Rhodesia.
vi. The United Native Church of Cameroon
vii. The Watch Tower Church Movement in Malawi 1906
viii. The people of God and the Religion of Jesus Christ in Kenya.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDEPENDENT CHURCHES
• They were founded by Africans as to preserve African values and customs
• Most of the independent churches were formed in urban centers
• Initially they were apolitical but after 1945 they started to practice political activities and economic problems
were addressed.
• Unlike the peasant cooperative associations which practiced tribalism the independent churches included all
tribes without segregation.
• They used indigenous languages in their church services (local languages) e.g. Kisukuma.
THE ROLE OF INDEPENDENT CHURCHES TO THE RISE OF NATIONALISM
They carried the Liberation message to the Africans during their church services which brought awareness among the local Africans
They condemned and criticized the white missionary churches as true agents of colonialism who came for their interest but their not godly people
They provided moral support and Devine guidance for the Nationalists.
They trained and groomed Nationalistic leaders in their churches were they learn how to speak to the congregations e.g Jomo Kenyatta, Nyerere, Kamzu Banda, Milton Obote, Samola Michael, Sam Nujoma.
They also provided education for many African leaders through their Seminary schools.
They provided physical assistance to Nationalistic activities like transport and financial assistance, which contributed to gain their independence
They participated in forming of Nationalistic political parties which late alone became he dominant political parties that took over the independence
Also independent churches become centers for the meetings of Nationalist to discuss their plans or activities.
They also encouraged unity among the Africans to the struggle of self-determination. Using the church as a uniting, factor
PEASANTS COOPERATIVE UNION (ASSOCIATION)
BACKGROUND
These were initially established by the colonial government especially during the inter-war period, their primary aims were to promote peasant produce by searching for market and improvement of agriculture methods of farming, but latter alone turned into nationalism organs that begun to agitate for political demands. For example in northern Tanzania the Chagga who occupied the fertile slopes of mountain Kilimanjaro, had been the first East African people to take over the growing of cash crops. In 1925 a group of Chagga coffee growers formed the first modern peasant association yet to be seen in the rural areas. The Kilimanjaro native planters association (K.N.P.A.) which had 10,000 members with in one year, its’ major aim was to provide efficient means of marketing coffee of local peasants but its’ leaders latter alone turned to be more political activists using the peasant association to promote nationalism. Other peasant associations included;
Bataka association formed in 1927 in Uganda, led by Clemens Kiiza.
The Victoria cooperation union in Sukuma land Mwanza
Central Kikuyu Association of 1928 whose general secretary was Jomo Kenyatta.
Bahaya native growers in Tanganyika 1936.
The Kilimanjaro native planters’ association (K.N.P.A) 1925 under Joseph Mwinyi with about 10,000members.
Usambara native growers Association 1932.
The Ukambani association in Kenya formed in the late 1930s.
The Taita association.
Kavirondo tax payers and welfare Association.
The Abangine Association in Ghana, and The Nigeria Youth Movement.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PEASANTS COOPERATIVE UNION (ASSOCIATION)
They lacked National scope i.e. they were not National wide only based in regions e.g. the Bahaya based in Kagera region and Kilimanjaro native planters association based in Kilimanjaro region etc
They concentrated to demands of peasant welfare e.g. good price for cash crops, removal of middle men etc but not political.
It was dominated only in agricultural productive areas.
In mining areas and labor reserves they did not exist.
Most of the members were peasant and non elites
It largely based on tribalism e.g. the Haya, Chaga and Sukuma and the Gandas etc.
OBJECTIVES OF PEASANT COOPERATIVE UNIONS.
Their primary aim was to provide an efficient of marketing the cash crops produced by the local growers, cash crops such as coffee, cotton, sisal. But latter alone the leaders of the association became increasingly involving into national politics.
To fight for the betterment of peasant welfare and resist the colonial government attempts of introducing agriculture improvement schemes. E.g. in 1938 the colonial government in Kenya wanted the Kamba people to de-stock of their cattle. The Ukambani peasant cooperation resisted it.
They were formed to fight against intensive exploitation like land alienation, forced labor, taxation oppression and through provision of low wages especially to the office boys and domestic servants. During the economic depression of 1930s the colonial government cut their wages by a third, the younger kikuyu association resisted the colonial government measures.
To stabilize and maintain agricultural prices by eliminating middle men who took the big share of their prices. Also to struggle in breaking the settlers’ monopoly of cultivating certain, cash crops that visibly, enjoying supernormal profit especially during the postwar boom. the Africans had been prohibited to cultivate some cash crops, this was especially in the settlers economies
The aimed to promote agricultural output by searching for good methods of farming and providing their members with agricultural equipments, like hoes ,fertilizers, axes, pangas, etc through credit facilities and loans
They also aimed to unite all the farmers for their general cause of fighting oppression and exploitation. And also to gain full control of their political and economic independence.
They also aimed to act as an adviser to the farmers, by instructing and advising about new methods of cultivation
It also acted as a representatives of boards for the peasants to the colonialist they reported all grievances the faced the peasants
THE ROLE OF PEASANT COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS TO THE RISE OF NATIONALISM.
It brought unity and solidarity between the peasants in rural areas and working class in urban centers to fight against colonialism; it was such solidarity between peasant and elites that led to independence
It became a source of information feedback to the nationalistic movements who based in urban centers
They participated in strike and demonstration against colonialists which weakened the colonial economy that eventually led to the collapse of rule.
They provided leadership for political parties e.g. Jomo Kenyatta who was a general secretary of the peasant association in Kenya later alone become the leader of a political party called KANU in Kenya.
They provided moral support and material support like funds and manpower to the nationalistic to continue with the struggle to achieve independence
Peasant cooperatives played a role of representing all the peasants’ grievances with one voice in the struggle against colonialism.
They supported the education of the students who came from poor families e.g. the Bukoba cooperative union in Tanganyika assisted very many needy students to acquire education which later was used in nationalism
They openly criticized the exploitation of the colonial marketing boards and always were ready to participant in any demonstration and strikes against the colonialist exploitation.
ROLE OF SECOND WORLD WAR TO THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM
The Second World War which occurred 1939-1945 was a necessary evil to the rise of African nationalism. The after math of Second World War witnessed vigorous nationalistic feelings in Africa which resulted into African independence. The following were the contribution of Second World War to the rise of African nationalism.
The returning ex-soldiers (war veterans) brought awareness and consciousness. During the war African had worked along side with the Europeans, and found them little difference from them selves. They had fought against and killed Europeans in the name of freedom and democracy. They had observed European poverty in Europe and savagery in warfare. Africa with their range and level of experience would never come back at home as docile and subservient colonial labor force. Thus their returning had added more momentum in the process on nationalism.
The Second World War also helped in the changing of attitudes of Europeans them selves towards their colonies. Allied forces especially France, was made accurately aware of its indebtedness to Africa during the war. In order to ensure the continuing African support European administrators had been obliged to promise the social political and economic reforms would fall the allied victory in the war. At a free French conference held at Brazzaville in 1944 Gaulli had promised a ‘new deal’ for the subject of the French African territories. The promise of the Brazzaville was followed up in 1946 with the abolition of the hated indige ‘nat and the corvee labour system. Some European powers became reluctant to implement their promises. Thus rise of intensive nationalism.
The second war also contributed to the rise of African elites who played a big role in organizing and mobilizing Africans for large scale nationalism campaign. In British West Africa the war years saw educated African being increasingly brought in the high administrative positions and on the elected local councils. British colonial administrators begun to contemplate a time in distant future when African would be allowed some degree of self-governance few ex-service men actually played a significant role in the leadership of the ensuing independence movements. But their influence in undermining the aura and prestige of the European was considerable.
The economic hard ship of European nations after the war most of their economies were badly ruined that were not able to continue running vast over sea colonies of Africa and Asia they begun preparing them for self determinations, this explain the independence of India Pakistan Burma Egypt and Ghana immediately after world war two thus made other colonies to increase demanding for their independence.
The Second World War brought intensive exploitation or large scale colonization of Africa. Most of the European countries wanted to revamp their ruined economies by increasing qualitative and quantitative production in the peripheries e.g. new taxes were introduced, land alienation, forced labor, forced cropping in west Africa, grow more campaign in Tanganyika such exploitation awakened the Africans to fight for their independence as to avoid exploitation.
Formation of UN came as a result of Second World War after the failure of the League of Nations. UN became an international body where independent African states were permitted as members; they voiced their grievances through UN and got support from Asian countries that had experienced a similar problem of colonialism this made the process of decolonization possible.
Rise of USSR as leading communist bloc the Second World War enabled USSR to consolidate and expand her influence in Eastern Europe and Asia as well as in Africa. It should be noted that the socialist ideology was against colonialism used her influence in UN by Appling her veto power to oppose the colonialism in Africa. On top of that USSR provided moral and material support to anti- colonial struggles in Africa and Asia.
The rise of USA as a leading capitalist nation. The aftermath of world war two was witnessed with the rise of USA as a leading capitalist nation because of the role it played during the war; it was the chief supplier of raw materials and extended loans under her Marshall plan with conditionality of decolonizing African states by the Europeans and establishment of open door policy by USA, a policy which meant African nations to open up their doors to do business with USA.
The formation of NAM in April 1955 In Bandung Indonesia which was an afro-Asian conference that welcomed delegates from all parts of Africa and Asia who belonged to neither side of capitalism or communism. In this conference it was greed upon that Africans should struggle by all means to get their independence. It brought awareness and new force in Africa for indepen4ence struggle.
The Manchester conference of 1945 after world war two. It was called by pan-Africanist activities that invited all Africans from various parts of Africa and resolved that Africans should use all means peace or forceful to attain their independence.
THE ROLE OF USSR TO THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM
The USSR adopted communism after the Bolshevik revolution of 1917 under the leadership of Lenin and Stalin, USSR became a strong bloc. Her strength reached the climax after the Second World War which enabled her to consolidate and expand her communist ideology in the world. She helped the rise of African nationalism in the following ways;
Ideological support: Many African nationalists adopted Marxist theory as a tool to fight and oppose the capitalist exploitation and oppression. As Karl Marx had advocated views that showed the possibility of doing away with the capitalist ideology. Many Africans were conscious to implement the idea and, this gave the Africans hope that they could at one be successful in their struggles thus the rise of African nationalism.
Alternative for capitalism: socialism did provide the best alternative for capitalism as it clearly spelt out the ills of capitalism which were characterized with exploitation and oppression of man. Basing on this many Africans wanted to adopt an alternative that was fair to the common man for example Ujamaa villages in Tanganyika, common man’s charter in Uganda.
Provided material and immaterial, support to many African nationalists’ e.g. military equipments and military Skills.
It provided scholarships to many African nationalists to go and. study in Russia who later became leaders of independent Africa.
It used her veto power in UN to oppose colonialism in Africa and used UND to support African struggle.
USSR established class alliance with the revolutionary forces in Africa which gave confidence and determination to fight capitalism.
Russia supported military and armed struggle to liberate them V selves through the barrel of the gun through the provision of equipments and training African man power to carry on the fighting
The USSR was against imperialism and extended sympathy to the African and Asian and she was ready to support nationalist movement to get rid of the colonialists
THE EMERGENCE OF THE USA AS A LEADING IMPERIALISTS POWER AND ITS ROLE FOR THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM
USA emerged as a leading imperialist power after world war two why? Because both wars first and second war ware not fought in the land of USA thus no destruction that occurred that might have affected industrial production. During the war USA became the major suppliers of military equipment and food for many European nations during the war which made her to emerge as richest nation after the war, on the addition to the above through the Marshall plan that was launched by USA prime minister George Marshall where USA begun to provide loans, to the war toned European nations charging high interest rate made USA to emerge as a leading capitalist nation.
Decline of Britain as a leading capitalist nation after world two due to mass destruction and high expenditure during both wars; because both wars affected Britain very badly that could not regain her economical status back this enabled USA to rise as a leading capitalist nation. There fore after rising as a leading capitalist nation USA begun to advocated for decolonization process in Africa, for her own economic Interest, the methods applied in the decolonization of Africa included the following,
USA championed the struggle for African nationalism through UNO by high fighting the Evil of colonialism to African countries
Giving moral support to African nationalist parties struggling for Independence through her veto power.
Providing loans to support economic venture in African countries to colonizing power at conditions for decolonization
REASONS FOR THE DECOLONIZATION IN AFRICA BY USA AFTER 1945.
Back ground.
It should be born in mind that USA was a colony of Britain which struggled for her independence in 1 770s and got the independence in 1776 from Britain, USA inherited all the wealth which included slaves’ plantations and the industries, USA began to industrializes in 1 880s, the first and second world war made USA the leading industrialized nation in the world, which made her to begin demanding raw materials, market and area for investment, since it had no colonies in Africa it began to campaign for decolonization of Africa and Asia, so as to establish neo colonialism. It uses human rights as a pretext to achieve her military and economic interest in the colonized and independent world
Had no colonies in Africa Therefore she wanted African countries to be free so that she can share the benefits of African economically under establishment of the new form of colonialism called, neo- colonial relation
They wanted to establish open door policy so as to establish direct trade with Africa. To exploit the market for their industrial out put Independent African states would be a better ground for USA investment for there surplus capita1 thus the establishment of international corporation companies.
To spread capitalist ideology in the Africa and to check on the spreading of socialism in Africa
USA wanted places to establish her military bases, in every part of the world including Africa so as it can maintain her military status-quo.
THE GHANA INDEPENDENCE
Ghana was a British colony originally and it was known as Gold Coast. It began her nationalism in 1868 after the formation of the Fante confederation. In 1920 a modern political party the national congress of West Africa was formed but with little success Of independence. In 1940 another party called united Gold Coast foundation was founded under J.B. Danguah and Nkrumah as her general secretary. Ghana was the first country in Africa under the Sahara to attain her independence. Factors that helped Ghana to get her independence earlier than other African nations included the following;
The political party that took over power the conventional people’s party[CCP] enjoyed overwhelming support in the cocoa growing because of her clear policies and implemental programs that would serve the people of Ghana.
Lack of tribalism in Ghana also played significant role in avoiding disunity in the struggle for independence
Also Ghana had developed reasonable social infrastructures that were used by many nationalists in carrying out their campaign reaching in a very corner of the country.
Ghana had no white settlers that would have been an obstacle for the struggle of their self determination thus the path for independence was smooth
English was a common language which many Ghanaians used as a symbol for unity against the colonialists
Leadership Ghana had a strong leadership of Kwame Nkrumah who devoted all her time and life, for the national cause
Also external factors like the independence of India Pakistan and the rise of USSR in 1917 after the Bolshevik revolution
Factors for the C.P.P. to Win Independence for Ghana
1. The message and slogans of C.P.P. (e.g. “Independence now”) was well received by most Ghanaians.
2. The party concerned itself with the genuine social and economic problems of the people.
3. The party exploited the widespread Cocoa Riots of 1948 and reinforced anti-British feelings among the
masses.
4. The position of the C.P.P. was strengthened by the creation of the Cocoa Purchasing Company in 1952, which
spread the message of the C.P.P. among farmers and peasants.
5. The good leadership of one of the ablest sons of Africa, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, was a major contributing factor.
6. The weakness of the opposition parties like the National Liberation Movement.
ROLE OF GHANA INDEPENDENCE
The independence of Ghana in 1957 brought new impetus in the struggle for African independence; Ghanaian independence had a great influence on African nationalism in the following ways.
Ghana became the headquarters of the ant colonial groups of Africa following her independence all issues pertaining independence in Africa were discussed in Accra Ghana.
Ghana provided material support like man power and funds to many African nations who were struggling for self determination from their colonial masters.
Radio Accra in Ghana became the mouth piece of Africans to voice anti-colonial feelings and to mobilize support from inside and out side Africa.
Nkwame Nkrumah became the leader o pan - Africanism and in 1958 a conference was help in Ghana to discuss the way forward of African independence.
Ghana became a model to other African countries to emulate. This made many African countries to go for vigorous campaigns for against colonialism and get sovereignty like that of Ghana.
Nkrumah the president of Ghana after independence held all African trade unions in 1959 with the aim to unity all African states into a confederation, such an idea increased momentum for many Africans to fight for independence.
Ghana as an independent country exerted more pressure on French domination on West Africa to stop their excess over the Africans which increased the Africans to demand for self determination.
PAN-AFRICANISM:
Definition
Pan—Africanism is the expression of desire for African unity; it’s at some time an expression of sense of unity between all people whose ancestors originally came from Africa i.e. the Africa in Africa and the African in the Diaspora. As such assume the common brotherhood of black people every where in North America West Indies. Indeed the birth of the idea.
Back ground
Pan- Africanism had its roots out side Africa because of the descendants of the African the Negro slaves in the new world who felt had been made home less by their transfer to the foreign countries and subjection to alien culture they felt that they did not belong to, they felt themselves as the orphans of Africa, alien and strangers in the world of white people who were chiefly interested in their labour only to work in the plantations and hardly interested at all in their personality as men, they felt to them selves as black out cast robbed of their dignity and with no claim of being of the same value and equal insight of man.
Pan Africanism was founded by William Sylvester Trinidad lawyer in 1900, who convened the first pan Africanist conference there were few representative from Africa but a big number came from America and the west Indies others were tudent from London among them was Dr William E.burghradt Dus Bois an outstanding negro scholar and prolific writer who later became “the father and the prophet of pan Africanism” was born in USA 1868 and died in Ghana 1963 at the ripe old age of 95.
He was the founder of national association for advancement of colored people [NAACP] He also led four pan Africanism conference 1919 in Paris attended with 57 delegates 1921 London and Brussels, in 1923 in Lisbon Portugal and the fourth was in new York in 1927 the massage of all those conferences were that “the habit of democracy should encircle the all world “the emphasis was inter—racialism and justice
The major plan of action for pan Africanism was to bring all the black people of African origin under one umbrella of pan-Africanism i.e. black Africa in the New World and in Africa.
OBJECTIVES OF PAN-AFRICANISM
• To unite all black people in the Diaspora and in Africa.
• To liberate African slaves from slavery in the new world in order to make them free citizen
• To improve the economic status of Africa so that they can be equalized with the European people.
• To create awareness among the Africans and instill the sprite of Africanism in them to remove the inferior
complex of the Africans to Europeans.
• To fight colonialism in Africa so as the African can get their self determination.
• It was also their objective to fight for civil rights of African slaves m the new world like freedom of movement,
owning property, worship etc.
CONTRIBUTION OF PAN-AFRICANISM FOR THE RISE OF NATIONALISM AFRICAN CONTINENT.
It brought solidarity, unity among the Africans in their struggle for self determination.
It led to the formation of OAU/AU a body which was responsible to fight for African countries which were still under colonial domination.
Pan Africanism brought awareness among the Africans to fight for their independence.
Pan Africanism also acted as a body to represent the Africans in world politics.
Pan Africanism provided leadership in many nationalistic struggles in Africa e.g. Nkrumah who became a leader of pan Africanism;
Provided moral and financial support to the Africans who were struggling for their independence.
MANCHESTER CONFERENCE
The Manchester conference was the conference that was convened by pan Africanits. It was regarded as a turning point in the history of pans Africanism because of the outcome of the conference which included the following:
WHY IS TURNING POINT (WATERSHED)
It was during the Manchester conference where by the leading participants were no longer Negroes of the new world, but a big number of Africans from home land countries and organizations sent delegates like Nkrumah, Kamuzu Banda, Kenyatta, Peter Abraham Azikiwe was him self prevented from attending the conference but his idea and encouragement were of great importance,
It was during the Manchester conference that the headquarters of pan Africanism were shifted from America to Africa under the leadership of Nkrumah following the independence of Ghana.
It was in this conference that colonialism was condemned and it was declared that by all means either peaceful or forceful Africans should get their independence. They developed a slogan that “if European for Europeans then Africa is for Africans”.
It was during the Manchester conference that a letter was drafted by the delegates warning all the imperialist countries who were committing excesses to the Africans like king Leopold was seriously warned and asked to stop it.
It was during this conference that demanded education of Africans and progressive participation in African governments.
In this pan African conference it constrained racial consciousness among Africa and removed inferior complex of the Africans to the Europeans in political and cultural values.
It was during the Manchester conference that pan-Africanism drafted a charter demanding the independence and implementation of civil rights in the colonies especially the human rights of the Africans in the colonies.
It was in this conference where all people from African origin demonstrated unity, solidarity and cooperation. This brought awareness and consciousness to the black races to fight for their rights.
FORMS OF AFRICAN LIBERATIONS
It should be noted that, the colonial state did not intend to create a sense of national hood among the colonized people. Its major aim was to undermine all ethnic or regional loyalties. There was very little feeling of national hood among the colonial subjects. Almost every body thought of him self as belonging to a certain ethnic group or region.
The colonialists had different sentiment about granting independence to African states it should be put clear that for the bourgeoisie in the metro pole were interested in maintaining colonial exploitation, but they differed in the best way to do it. They were three types of different opinions how to maintain this among the colonialists.
The liberal who realized that the only way to silence ant colonial struggle was to was through reform of granting flag independence to the colonized subjects thus between 1950 and 1960 liberal government of France and Britain began to grant flag independence. That is why the form of liberation were peaceful
The conservatives thought that maintaining the status-quo was the best way to preserve the capitalist interests, thus when ever these people were in power the question of granting independence to Africa never rose, and this was especially in Portugal thus the form of liberation in such Portuguese colonies were different.
The third opinion was that of the settlers their interest crushed with those of the bourgeoisie in the metro pole. If the neo colonial government, under black skinned leadership, believed that there interest could not be maintained no matter how neo colonialism was. If the worse came to worse they seized power as in case of U.D.I in 1965 in then Rhodesia.
FORMS OF LIBERALIZATIONS
They were four types/methods that Africans applied in their struggle to liberate themselves from the colonial domination,
a) Liberation by constitution/ dialogue/ peacefully.
This involved intensive negotiation between the colonialists and African nationalists e.g. the political independence of Tanganyika, Ghana, Uganda, Zambia etc. all applied negotiation or peaceful means to get their independence.
b)Liberation by revo1ution
This was the type of liberation which involved complete overthrow of the existing political system. This existed in colonies where independence was given to the minority at the expenses of the majority, the case in point is in Zanzibar where minority Arabs were granted independence by the British which prompted the majority blacks to make a revolution in 1964, and replaced with another new political system that is supported by the masses. It took place even Egypt and Libya. Liberation by revolution is always sudden and involves blood shed.
c) Liberation by armed struggle/arbitration:
This was conducted In the situation where peaceful means failed and the imperialist were reluctant to negotiate or to give independence to the Africans. In such situation the Africans picked up arms to fight the imperialists by force as a method to achieve their independence it involved bloodshed use of guerrilla warfare. For example in Zimbabwe, Kenya, Angola, South Africa, Namibia, Mozambique
d) Combination of constitution and armed struggle:
These liberations combined both methods. Firstly the Africans resorted to armed struggle as a way to achieve their independence and then applied dialogue/peaceful means to solve the problems of their independence, this happened in Kenya and Zimbabwe.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINED THE FORMS OF DE-COLONISATION/LIBERATION.
Existence of settler in the colonies that had a number of white settlers like Kenya Zimbabwe where by they had made some developments in form of investment the colonialist were not willing to surrender their wealth to Africans and were not sure of their future incase Africans take over the government, thus giving independence was very difficult. This made the Africans to apply armed struggle as the means of getting their independence
The nature of the colony. Those colonies that were regarded as overseas provinces of the colonial nation and view them as their mandatory land this was mostly to colonial masters like Portugal and France in such cases the colonialist were not ready to grant independence until the African decide to use the barrel of the gun to give independence; therefore armed struggle was the only solution for example in Kenya, Angola, Mozambique and South Africa.
The economic strength of the colony. In those colonies were development was very high and colonial investment was huge like South Africa and Zimbabwe the colonialists were not able to grant independence to the Africans in a peaceful way, the only solution remained to apply forceful means.
The financial economic position of the colonial power. Many colonies that belonged to Portugal applied armed struggle because Portugal economic position was not good highly depended ion Africa colonies for domestic development so she was un willing to give independence.
The status of the colony those colonies that were under the trust ship of UN managed to achieve their Independence easily through peaceful means because of the pressure from UN and USA, like Tanganyika got her independence early enough than other east African sister nations of Kenya and Uganda, but those who were mandatory colonies could not get their independence so easily thus armed struggle
The minority rule like UDI in Zimbabwe and the white racist regime in SA where by the minority white settlers declared the unilateral independence, in case of Zanzibar where minority Arabs where given independence by the British to the expense of the majority Africans on the islands this also caused armed struggle through a revolution
Existence of peasant cash crops; colonies that had developed peasant cash crops like, Uganda, Nigeria, Ghana, and Tanganyika, achieved their independence through peaceful means, the colonialist could not delay this independence after realizing that they can continue exploiting their resources through neo colonialism and they had nothing to lose in granting independence
The nature of reaction the African had towards the colonialist, also determined the form of liberation, those African societies who were very collaborative to the colonialist and forged class alliance with the colonialist in most cases dialogue or peaceful means were applied to decolonize e.g. in Uganda the Ganda were used as sub imperialist to Other areas of Uganda to spread the colonial rule so independence was through peaceful means in Uganda as to pave. way for the Ganda to dominant other tribes.
Existence Of wealthy especially minerals like gold diamond sliver, industries, well developed social over heads like in south Africa, Kenya, independence could not be given easily why because the colonialist were not ready to leave such wealthy un exploited armed struggle became the only solution’ in case of such situations and on the other side in colonies where development was minimal no infrastructure independence was easily given through peaceful means e.g. in Tanganyika .
WHY MOST OF THE AFRICAN STATES RESORTED ‘TO ARMED STRUGGLE AFTER 1945?
It’s true that armed struggle became dominant after 1945 especially in Zimbabwe, Kenya’ Angola, and South Africa etc as compared to other forms of liberation this was due to the following facts that
accelerated the application of armed struggle among such factors include the following,
Military assistance from USSR. After 1945 USSR consolidated her strength to the zenith it was ant-colonialism and a sympathizers to African ant-colonial struggles .It was ready to provide military support and moral to liberate the Africans from colonialism, thus military struggle due to military assistance of USSR.
Manchester conference. During the Manchester the major agenda of the conference was to liberate Africans by all means peaceful or force, this gave courage to the Africans to use force where the colonialists became reluctant to grant independence.
Role and influence of the ex soldiers. The war veterans of Second World War came back with military skills which they had acquired during the war it were these skills that encouraged very many African nationalists to apply force to overthrow the colonialists who were not ready to grant independence to Africans.
The support from U.N Under U.S.A and USSR were ant-colonialism and supported the African nationalist struggle to use all means to get rid of colonialism.
Failures of other methods. Other methods like peaceful means and constitutional failed, the armed struggle became as the last resort for getting independence from the colonialists.
Impact of India and Pakistan independence. The independence of Asian countries especially Pakistan and India was a big challenge for the Africans to emulate, they used all means including armed struggle to get independence.
Influence of pan Africanism. Especially after shifting her headquarters from the new world to Africa .The plan of action of pan Africanism was to liberate African nations by all means.
The un willingness of the colonial power to grant independence. Especially Portugal and British colonies that , were not willing to grant independence. The Africans resorted the use of force.
Influence of front line states. That provided military and man power support to the ant-colonial struggles in Africa e.g Tanganyika during the struggle in South Africa and Zimbabwe
Intensive exploitation after world war two. It awakened Africans against the colonialists who had increased exploitation of Africa resources as to revamp their ruined economies, this made Africans to use all means to liberate themselves.
Emergence of cold war after 1945. This was the struggle between USSR and USA, every bloc wanted to win more countries in Africa as to spread their political ideologies of socialism or capitalism, this witnessed the giving up of weapons to fight the colonialists.
NATIONALISM IN TANGANYIKA THE ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE.
Nationalism in Tanzania can be traced as early as the early days of colonial penetration under the Germany rule when they threatened their independence. Thus for example, Abushiri and Bwana Hen, the Zigua led the first resistance against the Germany at the coast in 1888-89, then Mkwawa against the Germany from 1891 tilll898 and finally came the Maji-Maji wars in1905-97.
Although the Eurocentric historians have portrayed the early nationalistic movements as back-word looking, leading their people from modernization and from God-sent blessings of colonialism; recent historiography has revealed continuity between the early leaders of opposition to colonialism and more recent leaders of mass nationalism. About fifty years ago, V.1 Lenin described such resistance as national war or national rebellion. These early resistances showed a symbol o great patriotism. For example Maji-Maji, Mkwawa and Abushiri are hailed as national Heroes in modem Tanzania monuments have been built for their memorials and honors.
During the interwar period some modern nationalistic political parties were formed, namely the TTCSA, TAA, and the TAWCA they developed crucial mass nationalism that begun to agitate for Nationalism after 1945. Of all parties that were started it’s only the TAA that survived the onslaught colonial administration in the interwar period, it kept the nationalistic sentiments in Tanzania a live. In 1945 the TAA political party begun to expand country wide and to campaign for mass support from the rural areas of Tanzania by 1948 the branches grew to 39 and membership had spiraled to 1, 780. It gave birth to the Tanzanian African National Union (TANU) in 1950s mainly urban oriented and trans-tribal in nature and non religious
Tanganyika got her independence in 1961 under the leadership of Mwl. J.K. Nyerere it was the first country in East Africa to get independence. It was formerly a Germany colony but latter alone it was given to Britain under the trust ship of UN. It got her independence through application of diplomacy led by J.K Nyerere and Oscar following the transformation of TAA to TANU in July 7th 1954.
OBJECTIVES OF TANU
• To struggle for self determination of Tanganyika from the colonial master Britain
To fight for African freedom against the injustice and inequalities of the colonialist
• To promote unity and solidarity among the people of Tanganyika and fight against regionalisms and tribalism.
• To abolish all forms segregations among the masses and to promote development in the of country
• It also aimed at helping the workers to fight their rights through forming trade unions of the workers so as can defend the workers rights.
WHY TANGANYIKA GOT HER INDEPENDENCE EARLIER THAN OTHER EAST AFRICAN COUNTRIES?
In Tanganyika there were no European white settlers, like in Kenya and other parts of Africa who were not willing to grant independence to the Africans, because they did not trust them in case they assume power. Tanganyika contained influential minorities of Europeans and Asians. The number involved was not large enough to bring obstacle in the path of national independence only 23,000 European among whom only few hundreds could properly be regarded as settlers and the number of Asians was 87,000.
In Tanganyika internal problems like tribalism and religious differences were very minimal. This was a sovereign advantage over her neighbors, the country’s population was made up with large number of ethnic groups but none of the tribe was large enough unlike the Ganda or the Kikuyu-to offer a serious threat to its neighbors by seizing power at the central and monopolizing jobs and development grants for its own advantage. That would have brought internal disputes struggle or disunity. So it was simple for them to unite the masses for self determination
Tanganyika was not mandatory colony like Uganda or Kenya it was under the trust ship of UN given to Britain. As a trust territory Tanganyika was subjected to measure of supervision by the United Nations. A situation which made it impossible for the British government to entirely disregard pressure exerted by international opinion. Thus the independence of Tanganyika was easily influence by United Nations
Swahili language played a big role to unite various ethnic groups Swahili had came to be widely spoken throughout the country, thus providing Tanganyika with an indigenous lingua franca, an advantage possessed by no other East African nation. It was rather less difficult to build up a sense of national unity in Tanzania than any other East African country.
TANU political party which took over the power lacked serious opposition from other to political parties which would have delayed the independence
The superb leadership of Mwl J.K Nyerere and Oscar Kambona also played a big role in achieving independence in Tanganyika earlier than other nations he was a simple man approachable democratic with high sprite of patriotism for his nation.
The effect of Mau-Mau in Kenya prompted governor Richard of Britain to grant independence in Tanganyika immediately fearing that a similar situation may happen also in Tanganyika
Unlike Uganda and Kenya were most of the political parties were very much affiliated to religion and tribes, TANU in Tanganyika had no any religious or tribal attachment it was a party for national unity
In Tanganyika the colonialists did not invest heavily in infrastructures or agriculture which they might have feared to lose, in case Of independence like Kenya were a lot of colonial investment had been invested. And on top of that Tanganyika had been viewed as the most economically back word country the least advanced in the field of education as compared to her sister Nations.
TANU as major political party had never been banned by the colonial government it was able to operate freely with out any hindrance unlike KANU in Kenya. This was very significant in achieving her goals of independence.
PROBLEMS FACED BY TANU IN HER STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE.
The colonial bureaucracy was a stumbling-block, when it came at registering T.A.NU branches national wide. As soon as it was learned that TANU had replaced TAA the legislation governing the operation of political parties was amended aiming at debarring TANU activities, the government technically put a delay tactic in registering the branches of TANU, with the same agenda of checking the spread of TANU and its influences. The colonial government first applied simple repression, banning of TANU activities in disaffected areas and the second tactic which was applied mostly in French colonies was the creation of colonial government sponsored political parties, the United Tanganyika party (U.T.P) designed to up hold the cause of mult-racialism. But both methods proved a failure when the election was held early in 1959. For the thirty members of the legislative council, ten for each race, TANU won an overwhelming victory.
Colonial government sabotage by closing TANU’ s branches and banning its activities .This tactic was used by colonial government to check th influence of TANU e.g. in Sukuma land rural radicalism and TANU activities had given colonial regime threats, after branches were closed of Tanga , Dodoma, Iringa and Kondoa Irangi.
The colonial policy of divide and rule, which wanted to divide the people of Tanganyika on ethnicity lines, e.g the meeting of 1957 Governor Twining attempted to drive division between traditional rulers and members of nationalist movement. This was a very big obstacle for TANU to forge unity between the masses.
The All Muslim National Unity of Tanganyika (AMNUT) was a stumbling block in the path of independence after petitioning to the colonial government to delay the independence of Tanganyika until the education gap between the Moslems and Christians is bridged
The defection of ANC from mainstream TANU, led by Zuberi, Mtemvu, in 1958 in Tabora they defected from TANU and formed their one party, this move to a certain extent it weakened TANU as a party ,this new party was even able to get some legislative council in election of 1958 and 1960 in Tanga and lake Victoria area
The opposition from church missionary society, who barred their followers from involving into active politics that would be regarded as disobedient to the church. This affected very many members of TANU who were Christians.
Lack of education for most TANU members .The colonial government prohibited the civil servants from joining active politics and were the only small elite who were educate that would have helped the party. Most of the party members were comprised by a big numbers of peasants
Transport and communication structures were too poor to assist TANU in mobilizing the masses in the vast Tanganyika mainland, some roads were impassable during rain season
Lack of political awareness among the masses, most of the followers of TANU was peasants who were in rural areas who, did not know the objectives of the political party and their financial assistance to the party was very minimal
NATIONALISM IN ZANZIBAR
Background.
The social structure in the post — slavery Zanzibar society was highly racial based. After the formal abolition of slavery in 1897 the Zanzibar society had just gone into feudal socio economic stratification which based on racial segregation. The British were on top of the hierarchy the Arabs followed the lowest class wares the Africans these were mostly poor and squatters on Arab cloves plantation.
In the next hierarchy after the Europeans were the Arabs, these were sub-sections within the Arab community which included the relatively less, rich shih iris from Yemen and Mangos from Oman ,they ran small business such as shops and other retail trade ventures mostly in rural areas. The Arabs family shared both political, economical and administration powers with the British colonialists. Other Oman clans of high class such as the Mazrui and Miskury they held some decision making position in the local authority administrative network and supervisory roles they dominated the middle ranking administrative load of the civil service. They owned big plantation, real estates and the large business. Arabs of Oman origin were favored by British colonialists and were deliberate given senior administrative posts in to prepare them to run the government after independence; they wanted Zanzibar to develop as an Arab and not as an African state.
The third structure was that of the Indian community which enjoyed the considerable social status and influence. They were big merchants who monopolized the exports and imports of trade. They helped senior economic advisory position in the government and dominated the whole financial sector.
The lowest that of oppressed African majority .These were mostly poor landless peasant who were mostly squatters in Arab owned plantations where they provided cheap labor for their survival .Others were employed as domestic servant in rich Arabs and Indian houses .They were denied access to education that were not given the best employment opportunity the could secure in the civil service.
In the colonial Zanzibar the Africans were next to none in personality they were regarded as inferiors. As some afro- centric historian once lamented in his writings that;
“It is true that Africans were intellectually, morally and personality inferior to the European, Zanzibar Africans just like pendulum clocks who needs constant reminding and reprimands, they have been like children who have been taught Arab manners.
I think it is evident that most of these Africans were and hypocrites” [Robinson R, and Gallagher in Africans and the historians.
The education system was given racial lines to serve the goals of preparing for public administration,
Indian for commercial and financial control Africans for sub service.
More degrading statements were made by the colonialists revealing the mentality concerning Zanzibar
Africans that they were inferior in all aspects to the Europeans and to the Arabs. Example;
Population structure of Zanzibar before independence
AFRICA RACE
Africans made 76% of the Zanzibar population in 1948 non of them owned a plantation of 3000 hectares and more over in education they accounted only 39% of the lower primary education and 3% of secondary education
Africans in Zanzibar by 1964 were immigrants who went there in three phases: during slave trade 1 840-1 870s during colonialism 1891-1963 and during clove harvesting.
THE SHIRAZI RACE.
These were of the mixed blood [shiraz, Africans and Arabs] .The shiraz Arabs settled in Zanzibar since the 1st century .They came from Persia, Iran and Iraq. The indigenous of Pemba and Unguja before 12th century were black .The Shiraz intermarriage with the black Africans and have mixed blood race .By 1964 the Shiraz identify themselves as; Tumbatu Shiraz and Pemba Shiraz .These were more Arabs in features than Africans and the Hideous —Shiraz who ware more Africans in features than Arabs .They mixed easily with the African race by 1964.
THE ARABS RACE,
These were few Arabs who immigrated to Zanzibar since 1940.They were the ones who introduced clove plantations and slave trade in the islands of Zanzibar
THE INDIAN RACE
These few in number and were chiefly merchants who lived in Zanzibar they were allowed to conduct business the by British colonialists to trade in Zanzibar.
THE 1963 INDEPENDENCE CONFERENCE
The conference involved the government and the opposition parties held at Lancaster House in
London from 20-24 September 1 963.It was agreed that Zanzibar should become full independent 1 0th
December 1963.
On 1 0th December 1963 the British government declared the independence of Zanzibar and handed sovereignty to the sultan hence ensuring Arab domination to the land.
This is how the efforts towards the independence of Africans came to unsatisfactory. Alternative measures had to be taken by the victimized African majority hence the Revolution of 1964.
THE ZANZIBAR PEOPLES REVOLUTION.
BACKGROUND
The Zanzibar revolution is not an isolated incident. It was due the continuous humiliation of the black African ever since the first black was taken on the island as a slave, by definition a political revolution can be defined as a total overthrow of an existing government in any country or state by those who were previously subjected to it. A political revolution may be gradual or sudden. hut the most important of all it should leave ever lasting impact in that particular society, that serves the fundamental difference between a revolution and a mere political change.
British were preparing to decolonize African states thus they allowed the people of Zanzibar to form political parties. Political parties emerged based on races e.g. ZNP Zanzibar Nationalist party for Arabs, African Association for African only, Shiraz Association of Shiraz only later in 1955 Shiraz split into two. Hadimu Afro shiraz party and The Tumbatu shiraz and Pemba peoples party for shiraz only.
The most likely immediate causes of the revolution of the Zanzibar revolution were numerous that included the humiliative manner the Arabs treated the Africans who were taken as slaves despite the factor that were the majority in the islands of Zanzibar but the most touching was the three failures of the people of Zanzibar to get the government they wanted, created disenchantment with constitution means. The decision of the old regime, only three weeks after a new constitution came into effect, to begin suppressing the opposition, seemed to prove there was no hope to change through lawful means.
THE ELECTION BEFORE INDEPENDENCE
Before independence 1963 there were three elections
Period A.S.P Z.N.P Z.P.P.P
Jan1961 40% 35% 17%
June 1961 49% 35% 13%
July 1963 54% 20% 16%
But the British wanted to hand over independence to the majority privileged race [Arabs] on 12/12/1963 Z.P.N became a ruling party and Sultan was made head of state. The A.S.P members the majority regarded that independence as an Arab independence. The A.S.P had tried to bring democratic majority by the use of ballot box without success, the only alternative was the revolution.
Within a month after the Arab independence of 12/12/1963 new Arabs government introduced oppressive measures which included the following; All African schools were closed down and therefore all African teachers were ordered to leave Zanzibar. A.S.P was banned and leaders escaped to Dar –es- Salaam before being arrested, African trade unions were banned. All policemen from the mainland were dismissed and expelled from Zanzibar The new government recruited new policemen within a month.
Due to the above factors A.S.P leaders organized the revolution in Dar- es- Salaam with the assistance of Okello a Ugandan from northern Uganda who had migrated in Zanzibar during colonial; era, as a colonial worker. He captured the armory at Zanzibar city with the assistance of other woifkers of African origin in Zanzibar and main land Tanganyika using ordinary weapon and managed to over throw the Arab minority regime.
WHY ZANZIBAR REVOLUTION WAS NECESSARY
Economic Marginalization of the African majority, Africans were mainly squatters who made, a living by selling their labor to the landlords and subjected to extreme exploitation Africans had no access to the major means of production Economic inequality, on the Arabs owned land, the Indians controlled finance, the Europeans controlled trade, the Africans owned nothing such a situation made the revolution necessary to occurred.
Zanzibar an African or Arab state? The revolution was also caused by the desire of Arab rulers and British colonialists to make Zanzibar an Arab state in 1962 which the majorities African were not ready to be Arab rise on their own African soil thus the revolution.
Deprivation of black African from Education. Despite the government’s role to provide suitable elementary education for all people, the Africans continued to suffer from inequality of education system. They were not catered like the other races which made them unsatisfied with the regime thus the revolution
Segregation in the other social services. Africans were also segregated in health services, housing and water supply. Even in civil services African hold lower ranks unlike the Arabs and the Indians
Deception Africans were divided along the lines of religion .Z.P.P campaign slogan used to call Africans to join Z.N.P because they claimed that the party was recognized by God.
Cultural and religion It was the Arab culture and religion that became dominated and recognized from that of the African culture and religious beliefs.
Act of intimidation After unexpectedly loosing the 1957 election to Z.N.P it decided to employ various act of intimidation to force Africans to join them i.e. the 1958 strikes at the docks led to mass uprising It initiated a strong campaign against them
Segregation in the social Association As the wind of struggle for political independence which was in full in the continental African swept the island Zanzibar in the mid 1950.The social association underwent complex transformation into political parties .Africans were opposed politically by the ruling class.
The emergence of John Okello from northern Uganda who settled in Zanzibar in 1952 and worked periodically as painter he was an official of ASP of Pemba island he joined a revolutionary army in 1961 he played a big role in over throwing the Arab regime.
Poor working condition and low wages of Africans after 1963 that could not make them to meet their basic needs of life and despite that were heavily taxed by the Arab government.
WHY THE REVOLUTION WAS SUCCESSFUL?
The disunity within the ruling party of Z.N.P gave the revolutionists to capitalize on it and managed to attain easy success
The poor political organization and weak military, structures of the Arabs also paved way for the revolution to occur.
The good organization and plan of the leaders of the revolution who kept their secret with out breaching it that caught the Arab government by surprise
The role played by general Okello a man with great determination skilled tactician this helped him to organize the revolution with few ill equipped military men that managed to over throw the Arab government
The taking by storm of the Zinawi armory and police station at Mtoni also accelerated the revolution to success
The fact that the revolution took place took place when the government officials and leaders of the regime were busy with Ramadan festival it enabled the revolution to be successful
SIGNIFICANCE/IMPACTS/CONSOLIDATION OF THE REVOLUTION
Having seized power with an astonishing ease, Okello and his associate were confronted with the task of forming a government. They decided to form a “revolutionary council” made up of prominent members not only from the Afro-Shiraz party but also of the Umma the recently founded, partly Arab party which was emphatically Marxist in its policy statements.
Soon afterwards Okello disappeared from the scene and Abedi Karume, the veteran leader of the ASP, who was to die at the hands of mysterious assassins eight years later, emerged as the dominant personality in the island. The revolutionary government rapidly announced the number of progressive measures which included the following.
Three months after the revolution the revolutionary council agreed to the establishment of a union government with the neighboring Tanganyika to be known as the United Republic of Tanzania.
The nationalization of land and the distribution of three acre plot to the Africans. The Arab land owners were forcibly asked to surrender African land for distribution it to the majority blacks. About 10,000 Arabs more than one-fifth were expelled from the island.
It brought dignity to Africans. As a result of the revolution the ruling class of Zanzibaris ceased to exist in the island, Africans were treated as equal citizens with all rights like the of Arabs.
Free education and health care to all the people with out segregation posts in government civil service previously monopolized by arabs or Asians were opened up to Africans; and the wages of the lowest-paid workers were increased sometimes as much as three times.
Scientific socialism was introduced in Zanzibar which brought some social development. The revolutionary council turned to communist countries particularly to East Germany and China. Problem of development were tackled more vigorously than they had been under the easy regime of British.
The formation of parastatal enterprises e.g., The peoples’ Bank of Zanzibar, The state fuel and power corporation, BIZANJE-The corporation which had the responsibility of managing the import trade and distribution of essential commodities such as food textile building materials and other capital and commerce goods, The Zanzibar state trading corporation [ZSTCJ which had the responsibility of managing the export trade in cloves, coconuts, and other primary products.
It brought majority rule in Zanzibar where by the majority Africans were able to take over the political control of the island.
Racial segregation ended and brought unity to all the masses without any sort of segregation.
COLONIAL DOMINATION AND THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE NAMIBIA.
Namibia then called South West Africa was first colonized by Germany up to the end of first world war after which it was handed over to South Africa from 1919 at the Versailles Treaty peace treaty .As it happened in many other Africans countries the inhabitants of Namibia ware mainly; Nama, Herero, and Ovambo did not accept foreign domination so easily. The Nama and Herero were farmers they resisted against German in 1904 -7 but even before that, they did not succeed because of internal disunity.
After world war one Namibia remained officially united nation Trust territory, though occupied and ruled by South Africa ever since the southern army had conquered the Germany colonialist in 1915. but south African government reused refused to honor terms of the trust and prepare the country for independence. It treated largely-desert territory of Namibia (South West Africa) as a fifth province of South Africa aüd applied to her people all oppressive legislation of apartheid.
Politically characterized movements were first observed in 1957 when Harman Taivo Jo Tolvo from the Ovambo land People Organization [O.P.O]. It was aimed at achieving better working conditions; it gave rise to the beginning of more powerful and political conscious party. The South-West African peoples’ organization [S.W.A.P.O] In 1960 SWAPO began a long campaign of guerilla activities against the occupying forces of South Africa . Since then SWAPO have been playing a big role up to the attainment of independence in 1990 after three decades of struggle.
WHY DID IT TAKE LONG FOR SWAPO TO SUCCEED UNLIKE OTHER POLITICAL PARTIES IN AFRICA SUCH AS TANU, MPLA, UPC?
Imperialists’ interest over the country e.g. Namibia was the chief producer of uranium as the important source of nuclear fuel, Namibia was made a home of capitalist investment of the big powers Britain and U.S.A. South Africa based mining companies systematically stripped the country of its vast natural minerals resources, that were very significant in developing the capitalist nations of Europe and USA, thus reluctance in granting independence to Namibia.
The question of SWAPO liberation movement organizing its guerrilla warfare from exile [under Sam Nujoma] has been another problem for the independence of the nation it brought disunity among the masses which delayed the struggle of independence in Namibia.
The presence of Cuban troops in Angola to keep peace. South Africa used that as an excuse to continue staying in Namibia that she could not withdrew her troops from Namibia due to the threats of Cuban troops that may take over Namibia to a communist state, so South Africa has been insisting on conducting election under her own supervision.
The presence of opposition parties such as the Turnholla Democratic alliance whose members were whites and their African puppets, were a big obstacle in the path of independence for Namibia.
U.N weakness to force South Africa out of Namibia, as it was always differed by VETO power of 5 permanent members like USA, Britain and France. Most of them had economic interests in the colony.
Nature an4 character of colonialism in Namibia. It was under Germany and then latter alone given to British South Africa under the supervision of United Nations This made it difficult for the nationalist to have consistency in their struggle.
Tribalism, there was no effective strong political party for Africans that would champion peaceful means.
Failure of imperialist powers to observe the united nations economic sanctions against the illegal white minority rule led by Ian Smith.
LIBERATION IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Freedom and democracy in South Africa are the impact of life that has been fought for by Africans
inside and outside South Africa for long time. However the attainment of freedom in South Africa had remained at a remote Like most of the colonies that had white settlers the road to independence was not all smooth.
In South Africa white settlers were 4 million by 1970 who ruled the majority blacks who were 20 million and the mixed race of the Asian race origin were 2 million, the black majority were not allowed to vote by 1936 for fear of dominating political aspect of South Africa South Africa was the most powerful nation in the continent economically socially and politically that strength originated from mineral revolution of 1 87Oand 1 880s given that prosperity the white minority were more than ready not to let the black major to take over power.
In 1 950s they established an apartheid policy which literally mean separateness that would keep the black away from dominance of South African politics they remained in reserves known as Bantustan they were only free when serving white in urban centre , the policy reduced the life style of the African blacks.
The population registration act of 1950 registered people according to their race dividing them basically into white and non white under the old imperial principle of divide ad rule non white were sub divided into colored (mixed race) Indians who came as contractors in the sugar plantation at Natal in the l9 century and the ‘Bantu’ who were the black majority population. The blacks were then further divided into further sub groups basing on ethnic origin Zulu, Xhosa, Tswana, Venda, Sotho and so on this was deliberate move to weaken African unity and destroy any African national sense of nationalism, it kept each ethnic group separate from another this act formed the corner stone of the apartheid policy affecting all the life style of the black people banning sexual relation among the races and prohibiting them from public places like bus parks, schools, hospitals, etc all black African trade unions activity were banned thus enabling the white to exploit the African as they wished this was an economic system to keep the black at the position of permanent subordinate of low — paid working class.
Such state of affair provided stimulus to African protest and resistance in South Africa. There was a wave of resistance to new pass laws, a number of spontaneous strikes boycotts and demonstrations in the towns the ANC (African national congress) which had been formed in 1912 by the educated African elites of teachers’ clerks, and lawyers was boosted by the new leader of Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo and Trade unionist Walter Sisulu. In 1952 ANC staged a ‘defiance campaign’ deliberately defying apartheid segregationist laws and refusing to carry passes.
On 21 march 1 960 police opened fire on un armed black demonstrators killing 69 and wounding 180 most of them short behind as they fled, this was known as the Sharpeville massacre which marked a new phase in the struggle for freedom. Fearing a revolution the government swiftly banned the ANC party and many members of the party were arrested and jailed. The ANC resorted to the use of armed struggle as the way forward.
WHY SOUTH AFRICA TOOK LONG TO GAIN HER INDEPENDENCE
The presence of imperialist investment in South Africa had continues cooperation between big capitalist powers ever since which included powers like Dutch and British with the apartheid regime of South Africa so they were not willing to grant independence to African easily.
Lack of unity among the nationalist organization .There were many movements working independently, they included the Indian National Congress [IAC], African people organization [APO], Pan African Congress [PAC] UMSA, ANO ,and Inkatha Freedom Movement. These except ANC were less radical they could not bring any impact but rather weakened the strength of the struggle
South Africa was the country that was recognized by UN to be independent country from 1980 . But the fact was that because both political and economic power were in the hands of whites ,worse still there was apartheid that did not able the African excess to economic power the blacks were denied democracy
All liberation movements like ANC and PAC were declared illegal and banned in South Africa by the apartheid regime of the white. The killing of prominent political activities like mass killing in Sharpeville and the imprisonment of Nelson Mandela also made the struggle for independence to delay.
Methods of struggle were weak initially, until 1960s ANC and PAC were using non violent based on Mahatma Gandhi philosophy e.g. demonstrations petition strikes and boycotts .It was until 1960 after the Sharpeville massacre that ANC formed UMKONTO WE SIZWE meaning the spear of the nation and adopted violence.
The big powers of western Europe feared that an independent south Africa may fall in the hands of Russia a communist nation this was because Mozambique and Angola who ere geographically near South Africa had the elements of communism opposed to the situation. Thus the struggle lacked international support of the big capitalist countries.
On addition to the above the constant indiscriminant attacks earned out by the racist white regime of South Africa destabilized the activities of national struggle of the black Africans, their major purpose was to kill the nationalists of the blacks and destroy their political parties.
Economic constraints most of the black African were pushed in the reserves of Bantustan were economic activity were very hard the land was barren no infrastructures to facilitate the activities of the movement thus it took long to achieve their independence.
Some capitalist countries who were pro the racist regime of south Africa denied economic aid to front line states i.e. those states that were ready to support the struggle of liberation in South Africa which included Tanzania Kenya Zimbabwe among others.
The possession of Namibia by South Africa racist regime, which was used by her as naval base and harbored the American French and British military men, hindered the military wing of the nationalistic movement.
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN THE SETTLER PORTUGUESE DOMINATED COLONIES.
Portugal had three colonies in Africa which included; Angola, Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde, and Mozambique. These countries attained their independence late as compared to other African countries; the Portuguese government was therefore determined not to give independence to these nations because were seen as vital props to the Portuguese economy.
Also the Africans of the Portuguese colonies were equally determined to win there independence
thus prolonged guerrilla struggle began throughout the Portuguese colonies the lead was taken by a
smallest colony of Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde, led by Amilcar Cabral, he founded the (P.I.G.C)
portido africano, da independence da guinea Cabo Verde in 1956 but He was assassinated in January
1976 only two years after the independence of 1974.
In Angola Agustino Neto led guerrilla struggle against the Portuguese after founding M.P.L.A (Movemento popular de libertagao de Angola) in December 1956 in Luanda among the working class, and were able to get there independence in 1975.
The struggle for Mozambique was led by Eduardo Mondlane and his deputy Samora Machel after founding FRELIMO (Frente de Libertacao de Mozambique) found in 1962 in the capital of Tanzania Dar- es- salaam they declared war officially in September 1964.
WHY LATE INDEPENDENCE FOR PORTUGUESE COLONIES?
Poor/weak economic base of Portugal. She was the poorest country among the colonialists, she had not Under gone industrial revolution, therefore she regarded the heavily depended on her colonies for economic prosperity at home that is why she was very reluctant at granting independence to her colonies, which she viewed like committing economic suicide
The Portugal colonial policy Portugal regarded her colonies s overseas provinces since Portugal was a small nation, she was very interested to acquiring more oversea land whereby they could stay forever and obtains raw materials exploit market for their goods and settlement of surplus population.
Settlers opposed the granting of independence to the Africans .The number of settlers were in big in numbers in many Portuguese colonies with high investment in agriculture and other economic ventures in the colonies. They therefore feared economic losses once the black majority takes over power
The Portuguese exploited the Africa maximally as to support their economy in the metro pole such as, imposed harsh taxes like dog, tax poll tax, this was great economically to them that’s why they hesitated to grant independence to the African early like other European nation.
Land alienation .All African fertile land was taken and known as crown land, it was confiscated for the construction of infrastructures, establishment of colonial economies establishment of white plantation, and this was too precious to them to give independence to the African easily.
Mass illiteracy. Many Portuguese were illiterate and hence conservative and ignorant of what was taking place outside world .Other European nations had changed their way of exploitation to neo-colonialism. Since Portuguese were short sighted they never dreamt of granting independence to their colonies soon, such situation prompted the use of armed struggle for the African as a means to get their independence.
WHY WAS IT NECESSARY FOR THE NATIONALISTS TO FIGHT FOR MAJORITY RULE THROUGH ARMED STRUGGLE IN ZIMBABWE
Zimbabwe was a British settler colony. The constitutional of 1923 gave special political power to the minority white settlers at the expense of the Africans majority .Throughout the colonial period the minority white settlers used various efforts to establish political dominance, e.g. Creation of central African federation 1953 to 1963 with the intention of placing Malawi and Zambia under political and control of white minority settlers of Zimbabwe to hinder nationalism.
In November 1965 Ian Smith, leader of new white Rhodesia front party, a unilateral declaration of independence (UDI).He thereby illegally declared white-ruled Rhodesia to be independent state, free from any British colonial control. The British government protested but little effective action was taken to stop it. It was clear to the leaders of ZANU that their, commitment to armed struggle was indeed the only way forward.
The international community declared a policy of economic sanctions against the illegal Smith regime. But South Africa and Portugal colonies like Mozambique ignored the instruction and continued to trade with Zimbabwe even British multinational oil companies secretly continued to trade with Rhodesia.
WHY LIBERATION CAME THROUGH GUN?
Land alienation by the British colonialist that were given to the white settlers and the African remained with totally nothing for there live hood apart from supplying cheap -labor in the white settler plantations
Zimbabwe whites declared U.D.I 1965 by Ian Smith this left the black majority with no any other alternative apart from using armed struggle.
Forced labor to work in the white plantation this humiliated the African very much that made them to use armed forces to fight it.
Richness of Zimbabwe, especially in minerals and rich agricultural land which attracted whites and made them not willing to grant independence to the African, thus application of armed struggle.
Failure of whites to agree to the peaceful means, to grant independence to the African.
Taxation also prompted the black majority to use force as the way to stop the excessive taxation system of the colonialists.
Imperialist powers supported the whites’ minority over the black majority.
Tribalism, there was no effective strong political party for Africans that would champion peaceful means.
Failure of imperialist powers to observe the united nations economic sanctions against the illegal white minority rule led by Ian Smith.
LIBERATION THROUGH ARMED FORCES IN KENYA.
The struggle for independence in Kenya after the Second World War was difficult. All peaceful attempts and diplomatic methods had failed to regain their alienated land .Attempts by the young kikuyu associations had all failed. British thinking about its colonial policy in Kenya was complicated further by the presence of settlers, it considered that some alternative should be found to the normal one-man one-vote democracy; if not the white settlers were not sure of their future in case the majority African take political power, the white settlers suggested multiracial type of constitution
No doubt that the kikuyu people had exceptional grievance to strike a rebellion at that particular time, one of the major reason for that was the fact that their number had grown steadily throughout the colonial period and yet their land into which they would have expanded on was occupied by settlers.
In face of land shortage large number of Kikuyu was driven to seek inadequately paid jobs in towns or else in European farms. In towns many were unemployed and took to living by crime. These poverty stricken and land-hungry people looked with understandable envy and resentment upon the settlers
This led to the outbreak of MAUMAU which was guerilla warfare 1951 .It started with the murder of few British farmers their cattle were mutilated and doing other acts of violence. All these act of violence were intended to instill such terror into the settler community that most would leave the country. The colonial government responded by arresting Jomo Kinyatta and other well-known Kikuyu leaders. They were charged for organizing the revolts and condemned to long terms of imprisonment.
The absence of Kinyatta from the scene did not affect the resistance, the Mau-Mau remained active and resorted to impenetrable bases in mountain Kenya and Nyandarua range. From these forests they ventured forth in small bands in the dead of night to swoop on outlying farms, to attack the soldiers who had been sent against them, and very frequently to take bloody reprisals against fellow Kikuyu suspected of co-operating with the colonial government. At the end of 1955 the back of the uprising had been broken at the cost of 20 million pounds and some hundred British lives.
CAUSES OF MAU - MAU.
Taxation, land alienation and forced labor annoyed Africans this was seen as total humiliation of the white against the Africa blacks. Who became squatters on their own land most of them ended up going in urban centers were they were unemployed and living on crimes
Missionary interference in kikuyu traditions such as female genital mutilation, and indoctrination of western values like religion, education. While condemning the African traditions and culture as satanic practice that are not permitted to God
Depriving Africans the right to grow cash crops, which only the white settlers were given the monopoly role to grow and market such cash crops leaving African with to provide cheap and V manual labor in European plantations.
The role of the returned soldiers who could not find jobs which they were promised when they were taken in the Second World War.
The presence of Kenya setters who thought Kenya was their .permanent territory. Were not willing to let Kenya go into the hands of the black African political leaders, such sentiment prompted the Kikuyu people to up guns
Kenya eventually got her independence in l963 under the leadership of Jomo Kenyatta of KANU, becoming the last country in East Africa to get her independence. KANU provided a country with the ruling group of great ability. Within a year of independence the opposition party KADU had gone into voluntary dissolution, its members deciding either to retire from politics or to join the ruling ranks.
But it proved impossible to maintain the structure of one party-state. In O1966 Ogiga Odinga after Kenyatta the most powerful politician broke with his old associate and formed a new political party the Kenya peoples’ union. He opposed Kikuyu domination in the politics, him being Luo many his followers were his tribesmen. He also opposed KANU ideological approach of handling the Kenyan problems. he favored the radical approach.
In sharp contrast to situation in Tanzania the Kenya government policy had encouraged the growth of
a class of local capitalists whose new acquired wealthy contrasted sharply with the poverty of the high
growing unemployed urban population. That was-the starting point of Kenyan income inequality.
GENERAL PROBLEMS FACED DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN AFRICA
The unwillingness of the colonial power to grant independence. Some European nations came in Africa to stay for ever and regarded their African colonies as oversea provinces, thus they were very reluctant to grant independence this was mostly on Portuguese colonies like Mozambique, Angola.
The colonial state apparatus ware very oppressive and coercive to the nationalistic movements in many Africa nations these included colonial army, police and judicially/prison which were put in place to facilitate colonial production, e.g. in 1958 Nyerere was arrested, Kenyatta was also arrested in I954, Mutesa of Buganda was exiled to Britain.
Also there was lack of political structures to mobilize the people to the common struggle for independence; in rural areas most of the political parties lacked branches which would have been used as centers to create awareness and mobilization of the masses most of the nationalistic activities centered in urban areas.
Tribalism also was a problem in for the nationalistic struggle it brought disunity and weakened the nationalistic struggle for independence. Some tribes did not participant in national struggle in steady they involved secessionist politics, e.g. Buganda in Uganda which demanded for her separate independence at the expense of the entire nation of Uganda.
The low level of education also affected the struggle for independence many masses in Africa were not educated and lacked political awareness about the essence of their independence this was a big hindrance in the path of independence since most of the indigenous did not know the significance of the struggle.
Financial problem to meet their expenditure, nationalistic movement in Africa lacked clear source of funds since most of their members were financially sick to fund the activities of the struggle like mobilization for support from the masses for independence.
Poor infrastructure especially in up country, during the movement of the nationalistic to mobilize support and sensitizing the masses about their aim it was very difficulty to penetrate in other regions during rainy season like southern Tanzania, because there was no railway roads ports etc.
Internal disputes and insecurity also brought a hindrance in the way of independence e.g. tribal wars regional imbalance
The policy of divide and rule that were established by the colonialist played a big role in making African not united some Africans were favored while others were not cared by the colonialist this made national struggle very difficulty.
A religious difference was also another problem .e.g. For Tanganyika to attain her independence the AMNUT all Muslim national union of Tanganyika. Were not willing Tanganyika to be given their independence until a Muslim candidate is graduated to take over the government.
The colonial tactics to divide and rule, that kept African divided were always at loggerhead that kept them divided along tribal lines e.g. the Gandas in Uganda were favored to other tribes that made the Ganda to be reluctant to support the struggle for independence.
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CHAPTER 3
CHANGES IN
POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC POLICIES IN AFRICA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
BACKGROUND
In 1960 many African states began to achieve their political independence which generally has been referred to as “flag independence” despite the fact that African got their political independence, still African remained under indirect penetration of foreign domination, politically, socially, economically and militarily. The political independence had little impact on the life style of the masses that’s why it has been referred to as “ceremonial independence” or “flag independence”.
The political independence was largely characterized with political and social economic problems legacy of colonialism, i.e. the problems were inherited from the colonial economy and colonialism, such problems included mass illiteracy of the masses, poverty, tribalism, poor infrastructures etc
The real political legacy of colonial government in Africa was that of an alien dictatorship, benevolent at times, but always prepared to crush outspoken opposition. Many of African leaders had suffered periods of detention without trials for daring to speak out against the unjust and arbitrary nature the government.
What’s flag independence?
Flag independence this refers to the type of Independence that the Africa nations attained during their struggles in 1960s 70s and 80s from their colonial masters; it was just ceremonial independence of hoisting the national flags and bringing down the colonial flags. But still African remained victims of foreign domination in all spheres of life, Political economical and socially remained dependant to their former ‘colonial masters, and at times it’s referred to as Neo colonialism.
Surely no substantial changes ever took place in terms of pre- existing production relation and ownership of the major means of production. The independence constitution merely cemented the exploitative social relation, it’s in this context that one may view the independence achieved as mere “flag independence”. The territory economy remained tied to the former metropolitan state and international capital.
FEATURES OF FLAG INDEPENDENCE
It leads dependence syndrome where by the country will depend largely from their former colonial masters for any development programmes.
It leads to the rise of puppet or sycophant leaders in the government who aim at serving and appeasing the colonial masters, but not to serve the interests of their people.
Absence of national culture and national identity, where by the foreign culture largely Influence the culture of people like education dressing and even table manners.
The constitution was written by the experts in the colonial government and then brought in the metropolitan parliament to approve.
Western model of politics with all ceremony and formality is followed in the territory like mult-party system democracy was to be included in the national constitution.
Absence of real political sovereignty in the sense that most of the political polices are made by the former colonial masters there is always political interference and sabotage from foreign countries.
Weak and small military machinery since most of the military assistance come from former colonial masters.
During the period of self government the colonial administrators reserved to themselves control of strategic areas these included the armed forces, finances and international relations.
THE SITUATION OF AFRICA AT THE POINT OF INDEPENDENCE.
BACKGROUND
Most of the African states immediately after independence faced numerous problems. The problems that most African nations faced since independence have, very largely, been the product of their history. The root of many African current problems in final decades of the twenties century are to be found in the period of colonial rule of the pervious eighty years or more. That were generated and inherited from colonial rule. Some of the problems included the following.
A. Political problems
They left a highly centralized administration system where by the central leader has got a lot of power in the state in most cases this power was vested in the traditional leaders or kings in case of British colonies, Such a system of administration has proved a failure and produced many inefficient leaders, incompetence, unnecessary bureaucracy and misdirection in administration.
They left limited trained African man powers to carry out the administration. The majority of Africans were uneducated or totally illiterates barely 10% were educated by the time of independence in sub -Saharan Africa that
The military structure was organized in the way that it was not separated from the political administration that’s why most of the independent African states experienced numerous coup de-tat. Where by military juntas took over the political arena
The colonialist planted tribalism among the Africans as to maintain disunity during colonialism, but this was inherited even in the period of post independent African, divide and rule policy was given priority. Most of the Africa nations with multi-party system political parties were based more upon the personal ethnic or regional origin of a particular politician than upon differing economic ideologies to guide the country’ s future development.
The boundaries left by the colonialist were mostly totally artificial. They had been created at the whim of European politicians with little regard for Africa’s multitude of pre-colonial nation state and stateless villages and communities, divided various ethnic groups into boundaries in other words natural African borders were abolished and artificial ones were formed. The artificial boundaries caused a problem of ‘national’ unity after independence.
They introduced foreign administration structure where by foreigners especially the whites ware involved in the running of the colony. In the post independent African state the most important sectors like finance Military and national planning remained in the hands of foreigners.
B. Economical and Social Problems
The colonial government let Africa with the mounting economic crisis that had been the end- product of eighty year of colonial is rule. The African economies had been directed towards exporting cheap agriculture raw materials and unprocessed minerals to Europe and in return importing relatively expensive manufactured goods, thus an economic crisis.
They left inadequate Social infrastructures especially transport net work schools medical centers and imbalanced regional development. The infrastructures that were left were inadequate for the continental internal development, they were virtually no regional roads or rail links between one region from another which would promote internal trade most of the railway had been developed around the turn of the century to ease the export of continent wealthy to Europe. By the time of independence the few structures that had been built were badly in need of repair.
African government inherited two particularly repressive economic policies from their colonial predecessors; poll tax and agricultural marketing boards. The former was charged on all adults males regardless of their income. The latter paid fixed low prices to farmers, while selling their products for higher prices abroad keeping the difference as government revenues. Both repressive policies were retained by the post independent African nations
Created of economic stratification in the society i.e. the peasants who lived in rural areas were the majority living in miserable poverty their major economic activity being agriculture which fetched low prices that made their surviving ore difficulty by the time of independence around 95% of the population depended on agriculture for survival and the petty bourgeoisie/working class who lived towns in good standard of living.
They left a highly dependant economy, where by the post independent African states produced raw material for their former colonial master and consumed finished goods from the metro pole. This promoted the unfavorable terms of trade that led to indebt of many post independent African nations.
They left Avery small industrial sector by ensuring that Africa remain de- industrialized and prepare it as potential market for European finished goods.
They introduced traditional cash crops in Africa which were monoculture to become the source of foreign earner from the metropole.
Created cultural dependence by distorting of African culture and establishment of foreign culture. Where by African values and culture were destroyed and de-campaigned by the colonialists. Dress language eating manners religion were adopted and inferior complex was instilled to the Africa always to despise their culture and customs This created disunity among the Africans.
PROBLEMS THAT FACED BY AFRICAN NATION AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Mass poverty many Africans are living below the international poverty line surviving s on less than one dollar a day this mass poverty was caused by colonialism were by African were denied to participant in meaningful economic activities apart from providing cheap labor. But the most important is the fall in world commodity prices for Africa principle agriculture export in the mid 1 960s. Manufactured imports which Africa had depended on relatively became more expensive poverty in post independent Africa has been also contributed much by African new political masters to do much beyond enriching themselves, ignoring the majority peasant to live abject poverty.
Mass illiteracy many African are unable to read or to write this was due to inadequate educational centers provided by the colonialists, the colonial education was segregative, and it was only children of the chiefs that were given priority. By the time o independence less than 10 % of Africans were fully educated most were in rural areas were they could not get access to proper education.
Tribalism and nepotism are some o the major problems that are facing the post independent African states these were sown deliberately as a move of the colonialist to favor some tribes and leave others un developed, as to divide and rule. Even some political parties were built on the lines of ethnic groupings. A politician was supported not because he possessed good national policies but because he belonged to a certain ethnic group.
Lack of political administrators that has witnessed corruption misdirection of the state and incompetence of some African leaders very few African were highly educated to provide quality administrative services, most of the Africans lacked skills of administration and political will to help their people. Indeed it has been argued that within some African countries that the educated elites in the post independent Africa era had in practice done little more than replace white colonial rulers with ‘black colonial rulers!’
Internal disputes that generated due to various political ideologies that made African nations to go to internal wars this was especially socialism vs. capitalism. Most African nations begun to abandon capitalism and multi-partism system of administration they went on one party state as to bring national unity. But this led to the suppression of opposition, detention dictatorship that accelerated civil conflict in the states
Boundary disputes, the natural boundaries were not considered by the colonialist when partitioning Africa this generated disputes afterwards. The artificial of national boundaries caused serious problems of National unity after independence. Various tribes were divided by colonial bounders e.g. Luo in Kenya and Tanzania the Haya in Uganda and Tanzania.
Lack of enough social infrastructures the colonialists constructed very few social infrastructure to serve colonial production, according to their needs in places were there was no colonial production ware ignored.
Foreign interference in internal affaires, the post independent African nations have not been free or independent as its always portrayed, former colonial masters have always influenced the state especially through Neo colonialism were by the former colonial master always tend to influence the political arena economic and social aspect of African nations.
Foreign debt from outside especially European nations this has been acquired especially from World bank and IMF with high interest rates, that makes it impossible to be paid back and to service it.
Military coup d’ c-tat this was because the military was not separated from the political system many African states experienced military rule. Most of the French speaking countries apart from Senegal Guinea and Cote’d’ivoire, went over to military rule during the 1 960s. Togo and Dahomey (renamed Benin in 1974) suffered frequent military coups and counter-coups. From November 1965 coup followed coup with frightening regularity taking Nigeria and Ghana in early 1966. By the early I 970s military rule had became a serious Africa political option. It remained the most frequent means for change of government through the 1970s and 1980s.
Corruption has become very rampant in many post independent African states especially south of the Sahara, the political leaders like, government ministers, some civil servants and other branches of minority educated elite are becoming increasingly wealthier. Through corruption, like embezzlement of public funds, office abuse, bribes misusing of public funds etc. The income gap between the rural based poor and the urban civil servants is increasing day by day in the post independent African states.
Lack of political awareness and sensitization due to mass illiteracy among the masses tend not to know their political rights and responsibility. They have been vulnerable to political manipulation and abuse due to their ignorance of political responsibility.
Existence of diseases like Malaria which kills 2 out of 5 infants and also aids has proved a problem to the post independent African nations. Many post independent African nations have failed to come out with political and social solution to the menace
Lack of strong economic base agriculture has been dominant as the major economic activity, but their yield has been always very low and price fluctuation is too much. Since colonialism African economies were directed towards exporting primary goods which fetched low prices and based on imported finished European goods that were costly to purchase.
Natural calamities like floods volcano eruption famine storms epidemics etc. These natural calamities are partly blamed on poor planning and lack of foresighted political leaders accompanied with political will to serve the masses
Religious differences it brought disunity and internal disputes like in Nigeria, and Sudan Muslims fight Christians and many are killed in such crushes.
SOLUTIONS OF THE PROBLEMS FACED BY POST INDEPENDENT AFRICAN STATES.
To alleviate poverty in Africa can be solved by, increasing income for every family/home. This can be solved by increasing employment opportunities to the masses as to increase their purchasing power, by providing free and subsidized basic necessities to reduce the expenditure of the masses which may include medical, school fees, and food.
To create a government of democracy and transparency whereby corruption can be checked and lavish government expenditure should be checked and be stopped.
Equal distribution of national cake by stopping nepotism whereby it’s only few people of one tribe or one region that dominate the government and enjoy sweet jobs, equal representation should be in place to all regions and tribes in the government jobs.
To elect capable leaders who are patriotic and able to care for their people, with good economic plans for development of the people.
To provide basic education and technical education to the masses so as they can solve the problem of unemployment and engage into serious economic ventures/business. This calls for revising national syllabus which trains job seekers instead of job Creators.
Get rid of neo-colonialism and develop an independent self sustaining economy which would help to solve the problem of Africa without foreign intervention.
To diversify our economy from agricultural based to be both industrial and agricultural as to create link between these two major sectors .What we produce can be used as raw materials in industries and industrial product can be purchase/consume by the agricultural sector. This will increase the market base and solve the problem of poverty.
To promote national unity among the masses through one party system so as to avoid many party systems that may bring divisions among the masses, and also national languages should be promoted as to forge unity of the people:
Introduction of national education that is based on the environment of Africa and needs as to avoid the colonial education that produce white collar job seekers instead of job creators, this definitely will solve the problem of mass unemployment.
DEVELOPMENT OF ONE PARTY SYSTEM. [MONO PARTY]
BACKGROUND
During the struggle for independence many African states had developed multiparty politics as a system to prepare them for independence; it was encouraged by the colonial masters as their pass for independence. E.g. in Tanganyika there were T.A.A and T.A.N.U. in Uganda they were U.P.C, D.P, and K.Y. However from 1960-1970s many African states begun to reject multi-party parliamentary system as unworkable. They pleaded the particular circumstances of their country’s crying to unite in order to achieve rapid national development in social and economic. By the late 1 980s only Botswana with its low population of one million people had maintained unbroken record of multi- party democracy since independence. But almost all post independent African states had switched to one part system.
FACTORS FOR ONE PARTY SYSTEM AFTER INDEPENDENCE.
(a) INTERNAL FACTORS
To promote unity and solidarity among the Africans under one party system after having been disunited on political lines by the colonialist, e.g. C.C.M in Tanzania, U.P.C in Uganda K.A.N.U in Kenya emerged as single party. The argument in favor o one party system was that parliamentary opposition based on multi party democracy bases upon ethnic regional interest was destructive rather than constructive opposition.
To avoid political opposition of other parties immediately after independence which would hamper national development since the African masses were politically novice with the new political system of multi-parties at that particular time.
To avoid civil wars among Africans since they were politically inexperienced immediately after independence. And multi-party politics was viewed as a tool to divide the masses basing on their ethnic origin that in the long run may result into civil conflicts, where by every tribe or region struggling to dominant political power. For example in Rwanda and Burundi were the ethnic Tutsi fight ethnic Hutu to control political power.
To avoid imperialist influence on local politics, through passing in other political opposition parties. Multi-party politics also was avoided as one of the method for not allowing foreign influence into local politics especially the former colonial power who still wanted to control their former colonies through third party.
To eradicate poverty and ignorance and diseases this can be well dealt with less than one party system, thus promoting national development by avoiding useless political rivalry of multi-party politics.
To promote good governance by checking on corruption .and misallocation of public funds, in some one-party states such as Tanzania and Zambia, election showed that unpopular government ministers could indeed be voted out of office. But the awful lot depended upon the political integrity of the party leader and his ability to control the enthusiasm of local party member. But in some states one party system led to abuse of state power like in Malawi, Uganda.
(b) EXTERNAL FACTORS.
The role of U.S.S.R, the leader of socialistic bloc which encouraged the formation of one party system known as vanguard party or workers’ party, the independence in the many African states coincided with the rise of cold war in Europe between two antagonistic ideology of capitalism and socialism. Many post independent African states adopted Marxist ideology of political economy that called for the formation of one-party state politics.
The support of other socialist states like China, Cuba which provided material and moral support to the countries that adopted socialism of one party system.
The influence of the ancient great political philosophers like Plato who advocated one party government as the only better method to serve the masses in any nation and on top of the ancient philosophers many post independent African states viewed capitalism as a mode of production that is largely based on exploitation of the masses, thus adoption of the alternative methods of socialism.
POST INDEPENDENT MILITARY COUP D’ÉTAT IN AFRICAN CONTINENT.
BACKGROUND
Coup d’état refers to the sudden military overthrow of civilian government by armed force. The post independent African countries were dominated by military regimes, which were witnessed by military coups, especially in 1960s up to 1970s.The first military coup was in Egypt in 1952, this marked the beginning of other coups in Sudan 1958, 1969, 1971, and later in 1980, in Zaire 1960 whereby Lumumba was overthrown by Kassa Vumbi, in Togo 1963, in Nigeria ,more than five military coups were conducted, in Algeria in 1971 ,in Uganda 1971 ,etc
In fact by early 1 970s military rule had become a serious African political option. It remained the most frequent means for change of government through the 1970s and 1980s.The causes of coup d’état in Africa immediately after independence were economic social and political causes which manifested during the post independence era that were directly problems generated during colonialism.
FACTORS FOR THE COUP D’ÉTAT IMMEDIATELY AFTER INDEPENDENCE.
Failure of the civilian government to bring development after independence, coup d’état was always seen as the .only means of overthrowing an incompetent or unpopular leaders it made the military men to become frustrated and overthrow the government most of the post independent African leaders were puppet leaders that tended to serve the interest of imperialist and them selves, this made the military to over throw the civilian government.
Secondly the cause of coups in the post independent Africa was that the army inherited at independence had generally and originally been found as part of the process of initial colonial period had generally been held in reserves for internal use against potential rebellious subject rather than for defense of the country against potential hostile neighbors. At independence they had little initial role to play beyond being part of trappings of an independent nation state.
Rigging of election by civilian government also prompted the military intervention to take over the government e.g. in Nigeria the widespread that election of 1964-5 had been rigged finally destroyed the credibility of civilian government that led to the military first coup in Nigeria in January1966
The influence of cold war between capitalism and socialism .Many governments which advocated one ideology, the opposition prepared a coup to replace it with either bloc U.S.A capitalism or Communism of Russia.
Corruption and nepotism made the military government to overthrow the civilian government. In 1 960s military coups were reactions against inefficient and corrupt civilian regimes, the military were known for being well disciplined and usually free from corruption, thus won a lot of support from the masses, and e.g. Milton Obote in Uganda who promoted nepotism with corrupt leaders was eventually overthrown by Iddi Amin Dada in 1971.
Colonial policy of divide and rule which encouraged differences among ethnic groups, the colonial government left fragmented society which was very difficulty to satisfy, this created political struggle among various ethnic groups.
Involving military in politics, most of post independent African nations failed to separate politics and military as it had been made by the colonialists’ .This involvement of the military men into politics led to the overthrow of the civilian government.
Regional imbalance and tribalism E.g. in Nigeria, Uganda, this was brought by colonialism whereby military men came from labor zones which- were undeveloped, thus the overthrow of the civilian government.. In Uganda the northern part was dominated in the army, in Burundi it’s only the Tutsi who dominate the army such situations prepared for a military coup.
Suppression of opposition .Many post independent African states suppressed political parties and begun one party system which many people viewed as a dictatorship, this paved way for military coups e.g. In Nigeria the civilian government of 1979-83 demonstrated freedom of speech freedom of the press but within few years personal greedy suppression of the opposition lavish government spending, ware all welcomed by the coup of 1983 as to restore moral authority and discipline in the public.
Mass illiteracy .After independence many African had not attained the basic education thus they were very easy to be manipulated by any political opportunities
The rise of African elite politicians who had studied in Europe with little experience about African situation, thus after assuming power they failed to change the political, economical and social life style of the masses which made many masses to lose confidence in them and supported military regimes e.g. the February coup in Ghana in 1966 which led to the over throw of Nkrumah who was accused of spending most of his energies into being an international statesman while ignoring his own country mounting problems which led to cut of military defense budget and the government intervention of day to day military affairs.
Vicious poverty in Africa after independence many African governments failed to meet the standard of living for the army. Many military men were paid less and lived in miserable conditions. Poor living conditions they shared a single room with the family the general welfare was declining every another day. This made them very annoyed and tried to overthrow the government as a solution to solve the problem.
The bag of African problems most of which generated from colonialism, colonialism emphasized separateness, and fragmented ness. This has retarded the force of solving common problems of African unity, and instead promoted military over throws of civilian government
WHY MULT-PARTY SYSTEM IN 1990?
BACKGROUND
It should be remembered that during independence many African states began multiparty system which did not last for so long after the attainment of independence where by one party system was adopted especially in 1960s andl97Os. But in 1990s one party system began to collapse especially after the fall of Soviet Union which was the socialist bloc, and then many African nations began to adept multiparty system. E.g. in Tanganyika 1995 there was multiparty election, Kenya in 1992, some of the reasons for multiparty politics was internally motivated while others were externally motivated as we can expand below;
Collapse of U.S.S.R in early 1990s, the leading communist state which used to offer both ideological and material assistance to those countries that followed communist ideology which called for the formation of one party system known as vanguard party or workers party.
The influence of the leading capitalist nations of Europe and U.S.A, also influenced the African nations to adopt multiparty system if there to be given aid from IMF and World Bank which USA had strong influence.
The influence U.N. under her international organization of I.M.F and World Bank which persuaded the African Nations to change from mono-party to multi-party system.
The influence of mass media especially the international mass media like B.B.C, C.N.N etc which criticized one party system as a dictatorship of socialism .This made many countries especially in Africa to change their system.
Changes in national ideology. Many African countries adopted multiparty system after crossing from socialism to capitalism which calls for many party systems, as their national ideology.
Integration of European Union. In 1956 the integration of European Union also had an impact to the African countries to adopt multiparty system as to get assistance from members of European Union.
Failure of one party system to bring development contributed to the rise of many party politics, to check on corruption, nepotism, egoism, and dictatorship.
Increase of elites who had acquired their education in western European nation’s .During 1990 the elite’ people in Africa increased in number and begun to criticize the one party system, as type of dictatorship of socialism.
More commonly one party politics led to an abuse of state power. In countries such as Nkrumah Ghana Banda’s Malawi and most of the former French colonies, the one party was used to give the ruling party dictatorial powers in suppressing any criticisms of the government thus it became more and more unpopular among the masses especially the educated elites.
POST INDEPENDENT POLITICAL INSTABILITIES IN AFRICA.
The post independent African states were dominated with political problems that led upheavals like civil wars. The major causes of these of political instabilities were;
The rise of dictators to power like Iddi Amin Dada in Uganda, Haile Sellasie in Ethiopia Kamuzu Banda in Malawi, forced people to use force as means to overthrow them, thus rise of civil wars.
Tribalism, regionalism, and religious differences, e.g. in Nigeria Muslim v/s Christians, in Uganda the central region v/s the northern part, in Burundi Tutsi v/s Hutu, all these promoted instability and civil wars
Weak economic base /poverty .This has been the root cause of civil wars and instability in Africa. Many Africans have turned against their government accusing them to segregate them from sharing the national cake.
Existence of military Regimes like in Nigeria under San Abacha, in Uganda under Idd Amin. Such military regimes encouraged terror and violence that lead to political instability as their technique to continue clinging in power.
Colonial boundaries and inter regional conflict e.g. in Kenya and Somalia, Ethiopia and Eritrea, Cameroon and Nigeria, Uganda and Tanzania these boundaries were established by the colonialists, But now they have promoted political instability in the regions.
Corruption, Nepotism and lack of transparency in public offices, among the political leaders of Africa after independence, which have led to embezzlement of public funds and uneven distribution of national resources. Some people are segregated from the national cake, this make them to fight against the domination.
Violating human rights, like freedom of speech, freedom of marriage, freedom of movement, freedom of expression heavy punishment, arbitrary arrest, extra judicial killings, etc.
Lack of able political and patriotic administrator, who are forecasted leader who could organize Africans to achieve development. Most of the leaders after independence in Africa were puppets that were planted by colonialist for their own interest.
EFFECTS OF POLITICAL INSTABILITY IN AFRICA.
It promoted national disunity among the masses, basing on tribal lines and regional basis e.g. in Rwanda Burundi the Tutsi and the Hutu are highly divided basing on ethical back ground.
civil wars caused misery, death, and destruction of properties e.g. in Angola, Sudan Uganda and Rwanda among others million of civilians have been internally displaced living in refugee camps were their subjected to all sorts of suffering and misery, while others were killed in the course of war.
It discourages economic development whereby governments spend a lot of money and time to suppress the insurgency or rebels this may be done at the expense of other social development, lack of social development like infrastructure and other social over heads may perpetuate the poverty syndrome in many countries of Africa that faced civil wars.
Occurrence of coup d’état as a result of dissatisfaction among the disgruntled people and this may increase more political tension among the masses which may increase the suffering and misery among the people e.g. in Uganda 1971 where Iddi Amin took over the government that made even foreign forces to intervene.
It leads to the outbreak of diseases like small pox, malaria, aids since little tension is given to healthy sector such diseases happen to increase in numbers in Southern Sudan as much as the war claimed many lives of innocent women and children also diseases have claimed a significant number of children and women in the war zone etc.
It leads to internal displacement of people from places of war to safe places this lead to the discouragement, of agriculture and other economic activities and this may bring famine and malnutrition related diseases.
It brought foreign intervention into national affairs e.g. United nations may intervene European Union or USA, and this is very dangerous at times where by some times such power may not have interest to help or to solve the conflict but rather to increase it for their own national interest e.g. to guarantee market for weapons like in Angola and Southern Sudan were civil wars have taken more than 20 years.
AFRICAN ECONOMIC CRISIS SINCE INDEPENDENCE [1970-1980]
BACKGROUND.
Immediately after the independence in Africa there was temporally an economic boom in the world economy, African cash crops and minerals fetched higher prices for the first time. The continent with inexperienced rulers had higher expectation of what could be achieved with political independence. But their dreams were shuttered as the depth of the underlying economic crisis became apparent.
Within few years the African countries had run up huge new debts with the ‘developed’ world, the result was the need of greater-ever exports of cash crops and minerals to finance the debts. This made the old trading patterns to continue, of producing low price fetched primary goods and import highly priced industrial European goods, and the adverse terms of trade got worse. The biggest mistake the new African leaders committed that must have contributed to the economic crisis was the modeling their development programs with those of the so called ‘developed’ industrialized nation of Europe and North American.
In this they were strongly advised by European economic ‘experts’ the theory was simple: Europe was ‘developed’ Africa was ‘underdeveloped’. Therefore to rectify the problem, Africa must c.opy the European model of urban-centered industrialization. African inexperienced leader accepted the model because they saw rapid industrialization as the means to achieve economic self sufficiency. With an idea that if African industrializes then they could manufacture their own consumer goods which up until then had been imported from Europe and will stop the drain of African wealthy to the already ‘developed’ world.
In 1970s and 1980s after independence many African states faced economic crises whereby they failed to provide basic necessities to their people like healthy education economic social and political development. It should be remembered that during the colonial period the African nations under the administration of the metro pole enjoyed good balance of trade. Foreign debt was almost non existence. But after independence soon the major Economic problems begun to manifest in the peripheries, foreign debt and drought became the stifling factors for economic prosperity in the post independent Africa, as we can trace their root causes here.
CAUSES OF ECONOMIC CRISES IN AFRICA.
Neo-colonialism, even after independence the economies of Africans still were indirectly controlled by their former colonial masters, the marketing and the prices paid for exports were still controlled from the financial centers of the ‘developed’ nations. The Ghanaian leader Kwame Nkrumah coined the term ‘neo colonialism’ to describe Europe’s economic control over politically-independent Africa. The French and the British particularly maintained close control over the economies of their former colonies. This maintained low pricing of African produce and high prices of European finished goods. This heavily affected the economic status of Africa, economies such situation brought economic dependence and crisis.
Absence of strong economic base to produce manufactured industrial goods for export, rather than primary goods that acted as raw materials in the metro pole. African government inherited two particular repressive economic policies from their colonial predecessors: poll tax and agriculture as the major source of foreign exchange through marketing boards the agriculture cash crops fetched low prices as compared to the prices of the imports of finished European goods. Poll tax was another source of government income but it was charged to every male adult regardless of their income but these revenues were very meager to escape any economic crisis.
The fall of coffee prices inl970s because of over production in Brazil affected the African economy which had no other alternative to export. African economies had inherited a monoculture system of cultivation from colonialism the back bone of African economic largely based on traditional cash crop of coffee and cotton which limited their foreign exchange. Thus the frequent fluctuation of the prices of those products heavily affected the economies of African economies hence the growing of economic crisis.
Highly depended economy based on agriculture and primary production, at independence the vast majority of Africa’s population was still based in rural areas, dependent partially or wholly upon substance farming. But government, dominated by urban educated elite, often scorned the rural peasant as backward and unproductive. And yet they themselves failed to invest surplus government funds or expensive foreign loans in the economy. Thus the problems of Africans that inherited were more than her income thus resorted on lending from international lenders while having low investment this led to economic crisis.
High interest rate on debts that acquired from European nation some time with pre-conditionality to implement first, this made it difficulty to pay back the debts especially after independence which made African nations to fail to pay or servicing back the debts, this resulted into economic crisis.
Disasters like prolonged drought in Tanganyika especially in 1981-1984 and 1990 and 1990. That totally crippled the backbone of African economies which had largely depended on the export of raw materials in Europe. This forced the government to borrow money from foreign sources as to fight famine and maintain the supply of basic needs of the people, hence debt crisis.
Poor administration and planning many, African countries embarked on early industrialization which was too ambitious and lacked proper planning and often inappropriate for the needs and resources of the country. African countries imported all the expertise, technology, machinery, and building materials from Europe and North America. The same applied to the social amenities like education medical and transport facilities which African new leaders were determined to provide for their people. Within few years the debt problem was beyond imagination thus economic crisis as to pay the debts.
The fall and the fluctuating prices of agricultural products, The African new leaders’ inability to do much beyond enriching them selves was coincided in the mid of 1 960s with dramatic fall in world commodity prices for Africa’s principle agricultural exports. Manufactured imports upon which Africa had become too dependant thus became relatively much more expensive. Many countries begun to cut back on imports no matter how much they needed them, so as to pay the swelling of foreign debts, inflation rose rapidly and they were shortage of goods in the shops. That marked the beginning of the economic crisis. .
Corruption, embezzlement and lavish spending, many government of those countries that had achieved independence around 1 960s especially in West Africa, had spent lavishly upon expensive industrial and prestige projects with insufficient concern for their appropriateness. Ghana’s Akasombo dam was a case in point. This huge hydroelectric project saddled Ghana with a crippling international debt and in the long term provided little practical advantage to the majority of Ghanaians and many such projects occurred in many countries in Africa, thus development of debt crisis.
CAUSES OF ECONOMIC CRISIS IN TANZANIA
In Tanzania the debt crisis had increased due to some particular problems faced by the country in 1970s that included the following events;
The long drought season of 1973-1974 and 1981-1984 where agriculture came into a stand still.
The oil price crisis of 1976 in the Middle East hindered all economic activities in Tanganyika.
The fall of East African community in 1977 also affected Tanzania.
The war against Idd Amin in 1978 .brought high expenditure.
The nationalization of all parastatal bodies which the government spent a lot of money with no returns
IMPACTS OF DEBT ECONOMIC CRISIS.
Accumulation of debts brought debt crisis in the third world countries, because of high interest rate on the original principle( money borrowed initially) was accumulating at an alarming speed that many African nations failed to pay back the loans acquired.
Decreasing welfare of the masses because o debt servicing and debt payment e.g. in Tanzania 40% of the total internal revenue goes to pay debts acquired in the past. Many African governments abandoned their development programs as to reserve some foreign exchange to repatriate the debts.
Increasing foreign intervention and dependence of African economies to the metro pole, European nations and north America begun to intervene in African economies as to monitor their debts payment some countries begun to give economic advise to the African nations as to be able to pay back the loans ‘experts’ were sent from Europe to assist in planning.
Unfavorable balance of payment where by African foreign exchange is low than what it needs this is because of high demand of foreign goods and few export of goods to European nations, and the little foreign exchange that is acquired is spent in paying back the debts.
Increase in the level of poverty among the masses because of low investments in Africa like in the industrial sector that may increase the employment rate in the country. Despite low investments also social amenities which would have facilitated trade were ignored like roads railway harbors feeder roads, all this led to general underdevelopment of national economy because of paying the debts.
STEPS TAKEN BY TANGANYIKA TO SOLVE THE ECONOMIC CRISIS.
Tanzania has taken serious steps since independence so as to solve the problems of economic crisis, which had brought far reaching impact on the masses; the majority of the population in Tanzania is living below international poverty line surviving on less than $ 1 a day. That’s why the country has taken serious measures to curb the debt burden which is the major causative factor of poverty in the country. These problems were divided into three forms from 1961-1967.-1968-1985, 1986 — to the present.
From 1961 -1966.
The programme to solve the problems of economic crisis begun immediately after independence, with 3 years development plan that aimed at improving agriculture, communication and education based on communist model, that included egalitarian measures (equal opportunity for all ) such measures included the following programmes.
Socialism and self reliance made in February 1967, salaries of government employees from the president down, were reduced to normal and measures were set to ensure that no civil servant or M.P or TANU office holder should continue in office if he retained any interest in the private business or if he employed labor (except for seasonal agriculture workers) this was very instrumental in curbing corruption and office abuse by the politicians.
Diversion of resources from urban areas to rural development and within agriculture the concentration on the overall advance of peasant farming rather than on highly organized and capitalized schemes with an impact on limited number of farmers. Gradually it intended that the rural population will regroup itself into ujamaa villages in which the people will work together on communal land so that development can benefit the all community not few individuals.
Administrative and education curriculum was changed in order to change it from a colonial relic to means of preparation for life in a socialist Tanzania. The new values of cooperative basis, it was recognized that development plans must be worked out on the basis of country’s own resources with foreign assistance regarded as an extra bonus rather than the main determinant of what should be done.
Emphasis was now to be put on small scale projects which required the labor the labor of the people principally; the people themselves were to be responsible for the largely rural development rather than leaving the government to take all the initiatives.
Nationalization of land from the colonialists and distributed to the people for economic development, it was another solution of self reliance was the determination that control of all major sources of investable funds and other vital resources should be in hands of local people this led to the nationalization of all foreign banks and other commercial and manufacturing private companies under complete or partially state ownership.
Removal of head tax, this head tax had no any significance from the majority peasants in the rural areas, it was unpopular in many areas in the villages it increased rather poverty among the masses since it was inherited from colonialism, the government establishment new sources of revenue correction of various means.
Reforms in the army and the establishment of union government in 1964 with Zanzibar.
From 1967 -1980s.
Establishment of Ujamaa village, in 1973-74 around, 8000 of such villages had been created, by 1977 around five million people were moved in such villages, masses were taken in demarcated villages to carry out community agriculture following the Arusha declaration 5th February 1967.
Nationalization and establishment parastatal bodies like TANESCO, TRC, NIC to offer services to the people. Not to generate profit
Man power and national experts were trained from inside and out side the country to help in technical issues of the nation.
Introduction and expansion of primary and secondary industry on small scale and large like SIDO in 1973.
Development of infrastructures to offer social services to the people like railways TAZARA, KIA in 1970s.
Expansion of agriculture by using slogan like “siasa ni kilimo” in 1972 to train peasant modern methods for cultivation.
Introduction of self reliance education to all citizens of Tanzania
Introduction of free universal education and adult education to remove illiteracy rate.
From1986- Present.
Introduction of trade liberalization policy that private businesses were allowed to operate along side with government parastatals.
Privatizations of some public enterprises where the government floated some of her shares to the public or fully privatized.
Acquiring of new loans and grants from IMF and World bank for national development.
Adoption of national human resource deployment programme. (Nguvu kazi).
WORLD BANK AND IMF AS A SOLUTION TO AFRICAN ECONOMIC PROBLEM
BACKGROUND
The IMF was established on 27th December 1945 its headquarters are in Washington D.C USA, it was established as a result of Bretton Woods conference and her sister institution of world Bank. The major objectives of IMF and World Bank were; to promote international co operation, Economic growth and to eliminate all international trade barriers.
The trouble is that the IMF and its associate world bank , both Washington-based, are financed by the banks of ‘developed’ capitalist nations of western Europe and north America their priorities have reflected the interest of the capitalist ‘West’ which still regards African primarily as a source of raw materials for its own developed industries.
Following the worsening of economic conditions in many African states in 1980s-1990s African exports dropped in price ten or twenty times in relation with the manufactured imports. Running out of foreign exchange, even ‘self reliance’ government like that of Tanzania had to turn to, IMP for emergency foreign exchange and or further loans to pay the interest for the loans already too large them ever to pay off.
To get access to the funds of IMF it set some preconditions known as Structural adjustment programme (SAP) that aimed for economic recovery of African economies. Unfortunately these policies of SAP applied universally, have been modeled on the practices of developed capitalist system rather than on the specific needs and best interest of the individual African countries concerned. What were presented as solutions to underlying problems carried with them even greater problem of their own.
How ever some African scholars are viewing IMF and World Bank as institution of former colonial masters representing the interest of the imperialists through their new form of colonialism, known as neo colonialism, IMF and World bank are just increasing the African problems than they have solved, SAP has brought more poverty, and misery than it found.
CONDITIONALITIES OF STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMME (S.A.P)
The first condition was that the government was suppose to balance their budgets: in theory it meant a cut in annual growth of government debt such move affected much the social infrastructure development that were suppose to be provided by the government.
The second conditionality was to devaluation of the local currency: this aimed at making the exports to fetch high prices like cash crops and minerals in the world market. But also made imports more expensive since local currency had no value in relation to the foreign currency
Introduction of liberalization of capital controls, this aimed at solving the problem of lack of inadequate indigenous capital for investments through trade liberalization aimed at attracting foreign investments with foreign capital to improve the terms of trade. The policy also aimed at avoiding government monopoly control over foreign exchange and import restrictions and abandons trade protectionism.
Privatization of public entities owned by the government, so that the government should not own all business, but must share with the private investors both local and foreign to ensure proper management and to avoid unprofitable business.
Introducing free foreign exchange market to the public and to abolish the monopoly of government control over prices in the market, this was seen as one of the way to boost internal trade and to allow price mechanism to determine the prices.
Adoption of multiparty politics and abolish mono-party politics, this will work as check and balance to the ruling government where by abuses like corruption nepotism and abuse of public office can be dealt with by the opposition side of the government, that eventually good governance of transparency and accountability can be achieved.
To form a strong revenue body like T.R.A. that its corruption free to correct taxes from the business people as to control government budget deficits by increasing government revenues.
Reduce spending on public services by the government cost sharing must be introduced in some public services: the funding should be by individual and private groups this was targeting education and healthy sector.
Reduce the workforce by reducing the number of people employed by the government as to reduce government expenditure and to maintain efficiency.
IMPACTS OF SAP TO THE AFRICAN ECONOMY.
It led to mass un-employment because of because of the retrenchment policy of civil servants, whereby their life became misery no income the termination benefits given to them were meager to continue life.
Some policies of S.A.P ware impracticable hence promoted chaos violence and internal disputes in Africa like privatizing of all public enterprises.
It increased poverty, suffering and civil wars among the Africans since most of the policies increase dependency ratio between the African nations with the Europeans donor countries.
It increased corruption especially in privatization where transparency and un-accountability were non existent for stance secret agreement from the public in selling public entities embezzlement of funds.
It has undermined democracy and increase the existence of puppet leaders in many African nations that have adopted S .A.P. who are for the interest of the foreigners.
It has led to the influx of more capitalist investors to own essential investment in the nation like TANESCO, T.T.C.L this makes the economy to be owned by foreigners. Who are profits motivated rather than service oriented.
The devaluation of local currencies and the scrapping away of government subsidies in public sector like healthy have led to increase of income inequality which increases the level of poverty in the country.
NEO-COLONIALISM.
Background
Neo-Colonialism, Refers to the indirect control of the African nation by their former colonial masters socially, politically, and economically. This came about following the attainment of flag independence from the colonial masters. The colonial administrators took steps to ensure that their economic interest would not be jeopardized by the transfer of power.
One of the methods was to prepare ground for the creation of puppet leaders by involving leaders of national movement into colonial government. This ensured that emerging leaders were groomed to up hold the existing exploitative relations.
Secondly the process of handing over power ensured that neo colonial relation would follow independence as to grantee the economic interest of the former colonial master, the constitution was made and approved by the colonialists, they made sure that the western model of political authority was followed in the independent country, The strategic sectors were preserved to the colonial masters like Finance, and International relation. In fact even in those fields that African was given responsibility the colonial did not vacant.
FORMS OF NEO-COLONIALISM.
Neo-colonialisrn has got four forms and it’s through these forms African countries are controlled and exploited by their former colonial masters and other capitalist countries, like USA. In other words how neo colonialism operates, as to meet the interest of the imperialists.
ECONOMIC FORM
Through massive investment by imperialist multi-corporations companies, as a way to exploit market area for investment and cheap labor of Africa e.g. such corporations include. Coca-Cola, Barclays Banks, Shell mining companies etc.
Through controlling the World market by fixing price of African cash crops by keeping the prices low so that African remain dependant to their aid.
To make Africa a damping place for cheap European manufactured goods, so that Africa remain dc-industrialize, and depend on them for consumer goods.
Monopolizing technology by preventing Africans to engage into new technologies
e.g. EEC - ACP relation signed in 1976 between European Economic Community and African Caribbean and Pacific, prohibiting African nation to produce sensitive commodities that are produced by European nations.
Through giving loans and grants under World Bank and IMF to Africans with very high interest rate and unrealistic conditions, this proves hard for African nations to pay back, that result into debt burden.
Sending of European ‘expatriates’ to work in African countries for interests of their countries and then are given higher standard of living than the local people like high wages expensive accommodation, luxurious cars, which makes all the funds given as aid to be spent to the foreigner expatriates.
Through international financial organs like IMF, W.B, IBRD, EU, GATT etc to make policies that enable them to continue exploiting the third World countries e.g. S.A.P.
POLITICAL FORMS.
Through establishing relation with a ruling class and create a puppet leader, so that can be influenced according to their interest (the imperialist.)
Through political influence and ideology following the imperialist democracies like parliamentary system election and multi party system, under the influence of UN.
Through propaganda of mass media making Africans to listen their radios like BBC, CNN, VOA, D.W
Through planting and supporting puppet leaders who serve their interests e.g. Yoweri Museveni in Uganda J. Rawlings in Ghana.
Over throwing communist oriented government and putting capitalist based government e.g. Zaire in case of Lumumba in l96O and Ghana in case of Nkrumah
IDEOLOGICAL METHODS.
Through influence of films, books, and education syllabus where by the curriculum is developed by the agents of colonialist that it is European based to a big extent.
Provision of scholarships to Africans to study abroad, in their countries.
Brainwashing Africans through ideological indoctrination.
MILITARY METHODS.
Establishment of military bases e.g. USA has got 234 military base in 44 countries of Africa.
To provide military assistance like weapons and instructors to train African military men.
By conducting coup d’état in the case of stubborn leaders who are against their economic interests.
HOW AFRICAN COUNTRIES SHOULD DISENGAGE FROM NEO-COLONIALISM.
By developing self sustainable and self reliance economies which may reduce the problem of dependence to the metropole.
African should develop science and technology of their own, by encouraging science subjects in school and higher institutions, research must be conducted often to come out with new ideas, instead of depending foreign on technology.
African should encourage and strengthen the regional integration which may increase their economic power and political dominance. E.g. EAC, SADC, ECO WAS, etc.
African countries should diversify their economies from monoculture to both industrial and agricultural sector, this will reduce over dependence of one sector, so that incase of the collapse of prices of one sector should not heavily affect the national economy
African should socialize and nationalize productive forces to reduce individual monopolies in economic and political power.
African should form democracy, transparence accountability in public offices to reduce the danger of corruption nepotism and embezzlement
To reject western interference in the political, economic and social affairs of African issues so as we develop an independent decisions and independent mind.
African should reject western standards like culture dressing foods and etc because they only create market for European goods and make African damping place. This discourages the development of infant industries in the continent.
Avoid civil war and conflicts that bring about economic backwardness and concentrate on political solution to iron out internal dispute instead of applying gun
BACKGROUND
In 1960 many African states began to achieve their political independence which generally has been referred to as “flag independence” despite the fact that African got their political independence, still African remained under indirect penetration of foreign domination, politically, socially, economically and militarily. The political independence had little impact on the life style of the masses that’s why it has been referred to as “ceremonial independence” or “flag independence”.
The political independence was largely characterized with political and social economic problems legacy of colonialism, i.e. the problems were inherited from the colonial economy and colonialism, such problems included mass illiteracy of the masses, poverty, tribalism, poor infrastructures etc
The real political legacy of colonial government in Africa was that of an alien dictatorship, benevolent at times, but always prepared to crush outspoken opposition. Many of African leaders had suffered periods of detention without trials for daring to speak out against the unjust and arbitrary nature the government.
What’s flag independence?
Flag independence this refers to the type of Independence that the Africa nations attained during their struggles in 1960s 70s and 80s from their colonial masters; it was just ceremonial independence of hoisting the national flags and bringing down the colonial flags. But still African remained victims of foreign domination in all spheres of life, Political economical and socially remained dependant to their former ‘colonial masters, and at times it’s referred to as Neo colonialism.
Surely no substantial changes ever took place in terms of pre- existing production relation and ownership of the major means of production. The independence constitution merely cemented the exploitative social relation, it’s in this context that one may view the independence achieved as mere “flag independence”. The territory economy remained tied to the former metropolitan state and international capital.
FEATURES OF FLAG INDEPENDENCE
It leads dependence syndrome where by the country will depend largely from their former colonial masters for any development programmes.
It leads to the rise of puppet or sycophant leaders in the government who aim at serving and appeasing the colonial masters, but not to serve the interests of their people.
Absence of national culture and national identity, where by the foreign culture largely Influence the culture of people like education dressing and even table manners.
The constitution was written by the experts in the colonial government and then brought in the metropolitan parliament to approve.
Western model of politics with all ceremony and formality is followed in the territory like mult-party system democracy was to be included in the national constitution.
Absence of real political sovereignty in the sense that most of the political polices are made by the former colonial masters there is always political interference and sabotage from foreign countries.
Weak and small military machinery since most of the military assistance come from former colonial masters.
During the period of self government the colonial administrators reserved to themselves control of strategic areas these included the armed forces, finances and international relations.
THE SITUATION OF AFRICA AT THE POINT OF INDEPENDENCE.
BACKGROUND
Most of the African states immediately after independence faced numerous problems. The problems that most African nations faced since independence have, very largely, been the product of their history. The root of many African current problems in final decades of the twenties century are to be found in the period of colonial rule of the pervious eighty years or more. That were generated and inherited from colonial rule. Some of the problems included the following.
A. Political problems
They left a highly centralized administration system where by the central leader has got a lot of power in the state in most cases this power was vested in the traditional leaders or kings in case of British colonies, Such a system of administration has proved a failure and produced many inefficient leaders, incompetence, unnecessary bureaucracy and misdirection in administration.
They left limited trained African man powers to carry out the administration. The majority of Africans were uneducated or totally illiterates barely 10% were educated by the time of independence in sub -Saharan Africa that
The military structure was organized in the way that it was not separated from the political administration that’s why most of the independent African states experienced numerous coup de-tat. Where by military juntas took over the political arena
The colonialist planted tribalism among the Africans as to maintain disunity during colonialism, but this was inherited even in the period of post independent African, divide and rule policy was given priority. Most of the Africa nations with multi-party system political parties were based more upon the personal ethnic or regional origin of a particular politician than upon differing economic ideologies to guide the country’ s future development.
The boundaries left by the colonialist were mostly totally artificial. They had been created at the whim of European politicians with little regard for Africa’s multitude of pre-colonial nation state and stateless villages and communities, divided various ethnic groups into boundaries in other words natural African borders were abolished and artificial ones were formed. The artificial boundaries caused a problem of ‘national’ unity after independence.
They introduced foreign administration structure where by foreigners especially the whites ware involved in the running of the colony. In the post independent African state the most important sectors like finance Military and national planning remained in the hands of foreigners.
B. Economical and Social Problems
The colonial government let Africa with the mounting economic crisis that had been the end- product of eighty year of colonial is rule. The African economies had been directed towards exporting cheap agriculture raw materials and unprocessed minerals to Europe and in return importing relatively expensive manufactured goods, thus an economic crisis.
They left inadequate Social infrastructures especially transport net work schools medical centers and imbalanced regional development. The infrastructures that were left were inadequate for the continental internal development, they were virtually no regional roads or rail links between one region from another which would promote internal trade most of the railway had been developed around the turn of the century to ease the export of continent wealthy to Europe. By the time of independence the few structures that had been built were badly in need of repair.
African government inherited two particularly repressive economic policies from their colonial predecessors; poll tax and agricultural marketing boards. The former was charged on all adults males regardless of their income. The latter paid fixed low prices to farmers, while selling their products for higher prices abroad keeping the difference as government revenues. Both repressive policies were retained by the post independent African nations
Created of economic stratification in the society i.e. the peasants who lived in rural areas were the majority living in miserable poverty their major economic activity being agriculture which fetched low prices that made their surviving ore difficulty by the time of independence around 95% of the population depended on agriculture for survival and the petty bourgeoisie/working class who lived towns in good standard of living.
They left a highly dependant economy, where by the post independent African states produced raw material for their former colonial master and consumed finished goods from the metro pole. This promoted the unfavorable terms of trade that led to indebt of many post independent African nations.
They left Avery small industrial sector by ensuring that Africa remain de- industrialized and prepare it as potential market for European finished goods.
They introduced traditional cash crops in Africa which were monoculture to become the source of foreign earner from the metropole.
Created cultural dependence by distorting of African culture and establishment of foreign culture. Where by African values and culture were destroyed and de-campaigned by the colonialists. Dress language eating manners religion were adopted and inferior complex was instilled to the Africa always to despise their culture and customs This created disunity among the Africans.
PROBLEMS THAT FACED BY AFRICAN NATION AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Mass poverty many Africans are living below the international poverty line surviving s on less than one dollar a day this mass poverty was caused by colonialism were by African were denied to participant in meaningful economic activities apart from providing cheap labor. But the most important is the fall in world commodity prices for Africa principle agriculture export in the mid 1 960s. Manufactured imports which Africa had depended on relatively became more expensive poverty in post independent Africa has been also contributed much by African new political masters to do much beyond enriching themselves, ignoring the majority peasant to live abject poverty.
Mass illiteracy many African are unable to read or to write this was due to inadequate educational centers provided by the colonialists, the colonial education was segregative, and it was only children of the chiefs that were given priority. By the time o independence less than 10 % of Africans were fully educated most were in rural areas were they could not get access to proper education.
Tribalism and nepotism are some o the major problems that are facing the post independent African states these were sown deliberately as a move of the colonialist to favor some tribes and leave others un developed, as to divide and rule. Even some political parties were built on the lines of ethnic groupings. A politician was supported not because he possessed good national policies but because he belonged to a certain ethnic group.
Lack of political administrators that has witnessed corruption misdirection of the state and incompetence of some African leaders very few African were highly educated to provide quality administrative services, most of the Africans lacked skills of administration and political will to help their people. Indeed it has been argued that within some African countries that the educated elites in the post independent Africa era had in practice done little more than replace white colonial rulers with ‘black colonial rulers!’
Internal disputes that generated due to various political ideologies that made African nations to go to internal wars this was especially socialism vs. capitalism. Most African nations begun to abandon capitalism and multi-partism system of administration they went on one party state as to bring national unity. But this led to the suppression of opposition, detention dictatorship that accelerated civil conflict in the states
Boundary disputes, the natural boundaries were not considered by the colonialist when partitioning Africa this generated disputes afterwards. The artificial of national boundaries caused serious problems of National unity after independence. Various tribes were divided by colonial bounders e.g. Luo in Kenya and Tanzania the Haya in Uganda and Tanzania.
Lack of enough social infrastructures the colonialists constructed very few social infrastructure to serve colonial production, according to their needs in places were there was no colonial production ware ignored.
Foreign interference in internal affaires, the post independent African nations have not been free or independent as its always portrayed, former colonial masters have always influenced the state especially through Neo colonialism were by the former colonial master always tend to influence the political arena economic and social aspect of African nations.
Foreign debt from outside especially European nations this has been acquired especially from World bank and IMF with high interest rates, that makes it impossible to be paid back and to service it.
Military coup d’ c-tat this was because the military was not separated from the political system many African states experienced military rule. Most of the French speaking countries apart from Senegal Guinea and Cote’d’ivoire, went over to military rule during the 1 960s. Togo and Dahomey (renamed Benin in 1974) suffered frequent military coups and counter-coups. From November 1965 coup followed coup with frightening regularity taking Nigeria and Ghana in early 1966. By the early I 970s military rule had became a serious Africa political option. It remained the most frequent means for change of government through the 1970s and 1980s.
Corruption has become very rampant in many post independent African states especially south of the Sahara, the political leaders like, government ministers, some civil servants and other branches of minority educated elite are becoming increasingly wealthier. Through corruption, like embezzlement of public funds, office abuse, bribes misusing of public funds etc. The income gap between the rural based poor and the urban civil servants is increasing day by day in the post independent African states.
Lack of political awareness and sensitization due to mass illiteracy among the masses tend not to know their political rights and responsibility. They have been vulnerable to political manipulation and abuse due to their ignorance of political responsibility.
Existence of diseases like Malaria which kills 2 out of 5 infants and also aids has proved a problem to the post independent African nations. Many post independent African nations have failed to come out with political and social solution to the menace
Lack of strong economic base agriculture has been dominant as the major economic activity, but their yield has been always very low and price fluctuation is too much. Since colonialism African economies were directed towards exporting primary goods which fetched low prices and based on imported finished European goods that were costly to purchase.
Natural calamities like floods volcano eruption famine storms epidemics etc. These natural calamities are partly blamed on poor planning and lack of foresighted political leaders accompanied with political will to serve the masses
Religious differences it brought disunity and internal disputes like in Nigeria, and Sudan Muslims fight Christians and many are killed in such crushes.
SOLUTIONS OF THE PROBLEMS FACED BY POST INDEPENDENT AFRICAN STATES.
To alleviate poverty in Africa can be solved by, increasing income for every family/home. This can be solved by increasing employment opportunities to the masses as to increase their purchasing power, by providing free and subsidized basic necessities to reduce the expenditure of the masses which may include medical, school fees, and food.
To create a government of democracy and transparency whereby corruption can be checked and lavish government expenditure should be checked and be stopped.
Equal distribution of national cake by stopping nepotism whereby it’s only few people of one tribe or one region that dominate the government and enjoy sweet jobs, equal representation should be in place to all regions and tribes in the government jobs.
To elect capable leaders who are patriotic and able to care for their people, with good economic plans for development of the people.
To provide basic education and technical education to the masses so as they can solve the problem of unemployment and engage into serious economic ventures/business. This calls for revising national syllabus which trains job seekers instead of job Creators.
Get rid of neo-colonialism and develop an independent self sustaining economy which would help to solve the problem of Africa without foreign intervention.
To diversify our economy from agricultural based to be both industrial and agricultural as to create link between these two major sectors .What we produce can be used as raw materials in industries and industrial product can be purchase/consume by the agricultural sector. This will increase the market base and solve the problem of poverty.
To promote national unity among the masses through one party system so as to avoid many party systems that may bring divisions among the masses, and also national languages should be promoted as to forge unity of the people:
Introduction of national education that is based on the environment of Africa and needs as to avoid the colonial education that produce white collar job seekers instead of job creators, this definitely will solve the problem of mass unemployment.
DEVELOPMENT OF ONE PARTY SYSTEM. [MONO PARTY]
BACKGROUND
During the struggle for independence many African states had developed multiparty politics as a system to prepare them for independence; it was encouraged by the colonial masters as their pass for independence. E.g. in Tanganyika there were T.A.A and T.A.N.U. in Uganda they were U.P.C, D.P, and K.Y. However from 1960-1970s many African states begun to reject multi-party parliamentary system as unworkable. They pleaded the particular circumstances of their country’s crying to unite in order to achieve rapid national development in social and economic. By the late 1 980s only Botswana with its low population of one million people had maintained unbroken record of multi- party democracy since independence. But almost all post independent African states had switched to one part system.
FACTORS FOR ONE PARTY SYSTEM AFTER INDEPENDENCE.
(a) INTERNAL FACTORS
To promote unity and solidarity among the Africans under one party system after having been disunited on political lines by the colonialist, e.g. C.C.M in Tanzania, U.P.C in Uganda K.A.N.U in Kenya emerged as single party. The argument in favor o one party system was that parliamentary opposition based on multi party democracy bases upon ethnic regional interest was destructive rather than constructive opposition.
To avoid political opposition of other parties immediately after independence which would hamper national development since the African masses were politically novice with the new political system of multi-parties at that particular time.
To avoid civil wars among Africans since they were politically inexperienced immediately after independence. And multi-party politics was viewed as a tool to divide the masses basing on their ethnic origin that in the long run may result into civil conflicts, where by every tribe or region struggling to dominant political power. For example in Rwanda and Burundi were the ethnic Tutsi fight ethnic Hutu to control political power.
To avoid imperialist influence on local politics, through passing in other political opposition parties. Multi-party politics also was avoided as one of the method for not allowing foreign influence into local politics especially the former colonial power who still wanted to control their former colonies through third party.
To eradicate poverty and ignorance and diseases this can be well dealt with less than one party system, thus promoting national development by avoiding useless political rivalry of multi-party politics.
To promote good governance by checking on corruption .and misallocation of public funds, in some one-party states such as Tanzania and Zambia, election showed that unpopular government ministers could indeed be voted out of office. But the awful lot depended upon the political integrity of the party leader and his ability to control the enthusiasm of local party member. But in some states one party system led to abuse of state power like in Malawi, Uganda.
(b) EXTERNAL FACTORS.
The role of U.S.S.R, the leader of socialistic bloc which encouraged the formation of one party system known as vanguard party or workers’ party, the independence in the many African states coincided with the rise of cold war in Europe between two antagonistic ideology of capitalism and socialism. Many post independent African states adopted Marxist ideology of political economy that called for the formation of one-party state politics.
The support of other socialist states like China, Cuba which provided material and moral support to the countries that adopted socialism of one party system.
The influence of the ancient great political philosophers like Plato who advocated one party government as the only better method to serve the masses in any nation and on top of the ancient philosophers many post independent African states viewed capitalism as a mode of production that is largely based on exploitation of the masses, thus adoption of the alternative methods of socialism.
POST INDEPENDENT MILITARY COUP D’ÉTAT IN AFRICAN CONTINENT.
BACKGROUND
Coup d’état refers to the sudden military overthrow of civilian government by armed force. The post independent African countries were dominated by military regimes, which were witnessed by military coups, especially in 1960s up to 1970s.The first military coup was in Egypt in 1952, this marked the beginning of other coups in Sudan 1958, 1969, 1971, and later in 1980, in Zaire 1960 whereby Lumumba was overthrown by Kassa Vumbi, in Togo 1963, in Nigeria ,more than five military coups were conducted, in Algeria in 1971 ,in Uganda 1971 ,etc
In fact by early 1 970s military rule had become a serious African political option. It remained the most frequent means for change of government through the 1970s and 1980s.The causes of coup d’état in Africa immediately after independence were economic social and political causes which manifested during the post independence era that were directly problems generated during colonialism.
FACTORS FOR THE COUP D’ÉTAT IMMEDIATELY AFTER INDEPENDENCE.
Failure of the civilian government to bring development after independence, coup d’état was always seen as the .only means of overthrowing an incompetent or unpopular leaders it made the military men to become frustrated and overthrow the government most of the post independent African leaders were puppet leaders that tended to serve the interest of imperialist and them selves, this made the military to over throw the civilian government.
Secondly the cause of coups in the post independent Africa was that the army inherited at independence had generally and originally been found as part of the process of initial colonial period had generally been held in reserves for internal use against potential rebellious subject rather than for defense of the country against potential hostile neighbors. At independence they had little initial role to play beyond being part of trappings of an independent nation state.
Rigging of election by civilian government also prompted the military intervention to take over the government e.g. in Nigeria the widespread that election of 1964-5 had been rigged finally destroyed the credibility of civilian government that led to the military first coup in Nigeria in January1966
The influence of cold war between capitalism and socialism .Many governments which advocated one ideology, the opposition prepared a coup to replace it with either bloc U.S.A capitalism or Communism of Russia.
Corruption and nepotism made the military government to overthrow the civilian government. In 1 960s military coups were reactions against inefficient and corrupt civilian regimes, the military were known for being well disciplined and usually free from corruption, thus won a lot of support from the masses, and e.g. Milton Obote in Uganda who promoted nepotism with corrupt leaders was eventually overthrown by Iddi Amin Dada in 1971.
Colonial policy of divide and rule which encouraged differences among ethnic groups, the colonial government left fragmented society which was very difficulty to satisfy, this created political struggle among various ethnic groups.
Involving military in politics, most of post independent African nations failed to separate politics and military as it had been made by the colonialists’ .This involvement of the military men into politics led to the overthrow of the civilian government.
Regional imbalance and tribalism E.g. in Nigeria, Uganda, this was brought by colonialism whereby military men came from labor zones which- were undeveloped, thus the overthrow of the civilian government.. In Uganda the northern part was dominated in the army, in Burundi it’s only the Tutsi who dominate the army such situations prepared for a military coup.
Suppression of opposition .Many post independent African states suppressed political parties and begun one party system which many people viewed as a dictatorship, this paved way for military coups e.g. In Nigeria the civilian government of 1979-83 demonstrated freedom of speech freedom of the press but within few years personal greedy suppression of the opposition lavish government spending, ware all welcomed by the coup of 1983 as to restore moral authority and discipline in the public.
Mass illiteracy .After independence many African had not attained the basic education thus they were very easy to be manipulated by any political opportunities
The rise of African elite politicians who had studied in Europe with little experience about African situation, thus after assuming power they failed to change the political, economical and social life style of the masses which made many masses to lose confidence in them and supported military regimes e.g. the February coup in Ghana in 1966 which led to the over throw of Nkrumah who was accused of spending most of his energies into being an international statesman while ignoring his own country mounting problems which led to cut of military defense budget and the government intervention of day to day military affairs.
Vicious poverty in Africa after independence many African governments failed to meet the standard of living for the army. Many military men were paid less and lived in miserable conditions. Poor living conditions they shared a single room with the family the general welfare was declining every another day. This made them very annoyed and tried to overthrow the government as a solution to solve the problem.
The bag of African problems most of which generated from colonialism, colonialism emphasized separateness, and fragmented ness. This has retarded the force of solving common problems of African unity, and instead promoted military over throws of civilian government
WHY MULT-PARTY SYSTEM IN 1990?
BACKGROUND
It should be remembered that during independence many African states began multiparty system which did not last for so long after the attainment of independence where by one party system was adopted especially in 1960s andl97Os. But in 1990s one party system began to collapse especially after the fall of Soviet Union which was the socialist bloc, and then many African nations began to adept multiparty system. E.g. in Tanganyika 1995 there was multiparty election, Kenya in 1992, some of the reasons for multiparty politics was internally motivated while others were externally motivated as we can expand below;
Collapse of U.S.S.R in early 1990s, the leading communist state which used to offer both ideological and material assistance to those countries that followed communist ideology which called for the formation of one party system known as vanguard party or workers party.
The influence of the leading capitalist nations of Europe and U.S.A, also influenced the African nations to adopt multiparty system if there to be given aid from IMF and World Bank which USA had strong influence.
The influence U.N. under her international organization of I.M.F and World Bank which persuaded the African Nations to change from mono-party to multi-party system.
The influence of mass media especially the international mass media like B.B.C, C.N.N etc which criticized one party system as a dictatorship of socialism .This made many countries especially in Africa to change their system.
Changes in national ideology. Many African countries adopted multiparty system after crossing from socialism to capitalism which calls for many party systems, as their national ideology.
Integration of European Union. In 1956 the integration of European Union also had an impact to the African countries to adopt multiparty system as to get assistance from members of European Union.
Failure of one party system to bring development contributed to the rise of many party politics, to check on corruption, nepotism, egoism, and dictatorship.
Increase of elites who had acquired their education in western European nation’s .During 1990 the elite’ people in Africa increased in number and begun to criticize the one party system, as type of dictatorship of socialism.
More commonly one party politics led to an abuse of state power. In countries such as Nkrumah Ghana Banda’s Malawi and most of the former French colonies, the one party was used to give the ruling party dictatorial powers in suppressing any criticisms of the government thus it became more and more unpopular among the masses especially the educated elites.
POST INDEPENDENT POLITICAL INSTABILITIES IN AFRICA.
The post independent African states were dominated with political problems that led upheavals like civil wars. The major causes of these of political instabilities were;
The rise of dictators to power like Iddi Amin Dada in Uganda, Haile Sellasie in Ethiopia Kamuzu Banda in Malawi, forced people to use force as means to overthrow them, thus rise of civil wars.
Tribalism, regionalism, and religious differences, e.g. in Nigeria Muslim v/s Christians, in Uganda the central region v/s the northern part, in Burundi Tutsi v/s Hutu, all these promoted instability and civil wars
Weak economic base /poverty .This has been the root cause of civil wars and instability in Africa. Many Africans have turned against their government accusing them to segregate them from sharing the national cake.
Existence of military Regimes like in Nigeria under San Abacha, in Uganda under Idd Amin. Such military regimes encouraged terror and violence that lead to political instability as their technique to continue clinging in power.
Colonial boundaries and inter regional conflict e.g. in Kenya and Somalia, Ethiopia and Eritrea, Cameroon and Nigeria, Uganda and Tanzania these boundaries were established by the colonialists, But now they have promoted political instability in the regions.
Corruption, Nepotism and lack of transparency in public offices, among the political leaders of Africa after independence, which have led to embezzlement of public funds and uneven distribution of national resources. Some people are segregated from the national cake, this make them to fight against the domination.
Violating human rights, like freedom of speech, freedom of marriage, freedom of movement, freedom of expression heavy punishment, arbitrary arrest, extra judicial killings, etc.
Lack of able political and patriotic administrator, who are forecasted leader who could organize Africans to achieve development. Most of the leaders after independence in Africa were puppets that were planted by colonialist for their own interest.
EFFECTS OF POLITICAL INSTABILITY IN AFRICA.
It promoted national disunity among the masses, basing on tribal lines and regional basis e.g. in Rwanda Burundi the Tutsi and the Hutu are highly divided basing on ethical back ground.
civil wars caused misery, death, and destruction of properties e.g. in Angola, Sudan Uganda and Rwanda among others million of civilians have been internally displaced living in refugee camps were their subjected to all sorts of suffering and misery, while others were killed in the course of war.
It discourages economic development whereby governments spend a lot of money and time to suppress the insurgency or rebels this may be done at the expense of other social development, lack of social development like infrastructure and other social over heads may perpetuate the poverty syndrome in many countries of Africa that faced civil wars.
Occurrence of coup d’état as a result of dissatisfaction among the disgruntled people and this may increase more political tension among the masses which may increase the suffering and misery among the people e.g. in Uganda 1971 where Iddi Amin took over the government that made even foreign forces to intervene.
It leads to the outbreak of diseases like small pox, malaria, aids since little tension is given to healthy sector such diseases happen to increase in numbers in Southern Sudan as much as the war claimed many lives of innocent women and children also diseases have claimed a significant number of children and women in the war zone etc.
It leads to internal displacement of people from places of war to safe places this lead to the discouragement, of agriculture and other economic activities and this may bring famine and malnutrition related diseases.
It brought foreign intervention into national affairs e.g. United nations may intervene European Union or USA, and this is very dangerous at times where by some times such power may not have interest to help or to solve the conflict but rather to increase it for their own national interest e.g. to guarantee market for weapons like in Angola and Southern Sudan were civil wars have taken more than 20 years.
AFRICAN ECONOMIC CRISIS SINCE INDEPENDENCE [1970-1980]
BACKGROUND.
Immediately after the independence in Africa there was temporally an economic boom in the world economy, African cash crops and minerals fetched higher prices for the first time. The continent with inexperienced rulers had higher expectation of what could be achieved with political independence. But their dreams were shuttered as the depth of the underlying economic crisis became apparent.
Within few years the African countries had run up huge new debts with the ‘developed’ world, the result was the need of greater-ever exports of cash crops and minerals to finance the debts. This made the old trading patterns to continue, of producing low price fetched primary goods and import highly priced industrial European goods, and the adverse terms of trade got worse. The biggest mistake the new African leaders committed that must have contributed to the economic crisis was the modeling their development programs with those of the so called ‘developed’ industrialized nation of Europe and North American.
In this they were strongly advised by European economic ‘experts’ the theory was simple: Europe was ‘developed’ Africa was ‘underdeveloped’. Therefore to rectify the problem, Africa must c.opy the European model of urban-centered industrialization. African inexperienced leader accepted the model because they saw rapid industrialization as the means to achieve economic self sufficiency. With an idea that if African industrializes then they could manufacture their own consumer goods which up until then had been imported from Europe and will stop the drain of African wealthy to the already ‘developed’ world.
In 1970s and 1980s after independence many African states faced economic crises whereby they failed to provide basic necessities to their people like healthy education economic social and political development. It should be remembered that during the colonial period the African nations under the administration of the metro pole enjoyed good balance of trade. Foreign debt was almost non existence. But after independence soon the major Economic problems begun to manifest in the peripheries, foreign debt and drought became the stifling factors for economic prosperity in the post independent Africa, as we can trace their root causes here.
CAUSES OF ECONOMIC CRISES IN AFRICA.
Neo-colonialism, even after independence the economies of Africans still were indirectly controlled by their former colonial masters, the marketing and the prices paid for exports were still controlled from the financial centers of the ‘developed’ nations. The Ghanaian leader Kwame Nkrumah coined the term ‘neo colonialism’ to describe Europe’s economic control over politically-independent Africa. The French and the British particularly maintained close control over the economies of their former colonies. This maintained low pricing of African produce and high prices of European finished goods. This heavily affected the economic status of Africa, economies such situation brought economic dependence and crisis.
Absence of strong economic base to produce manufactured industrial goods for export, rather than primary goods that acted as raw materials in the metro pole. African government inherited two particular repressive economic policies from their colonial predecessors: poll tax and agriculture as the major source of foreign exchange through marketing boards the agriculture cash crops fetched low prices as compared to the prices of the imports of finished European goods. Poll tax was another source of government income but it was charged to every male adult regardless of their income but these revenues were very meager to escape any economic crisis.
The fall of coffee prices inl970s because of over production in Brazil affected the African economy which had no other alternative to export. African economies had inherited a monoculture system of cultivation from colonialism the back bone of African economic largely based on traditional cash crop of coffee and cotton which limited their foreign exchange. Thus the frequent fluctuation of the prices of those products heavily affected the economies of African economies hence the growing of economic crisis.
Highly depended economy based on agriculture and primary production, at independence the vast majority of Africa’s population was still based in rural areas, dependent partially or wholly upon substance farming. But government, dominated by urban educated elite, often scorned the rural peasant as backward and unproductive. And yet they themselves failed to invest surplus government funds or expensive foreign loans in the economy. Thus the problems of Africans that inherited were more than her income thus resorted on lending from international lenders while having low investment this led to economic crisis.
High interest rate on debts that acquired from European nation some time with pre-conditionality to implement first, this made it difficulty to pay back the debts especially after independence which made African nations to fail to pay or servicing back the debts, this resulted into economic crisis.
Disasters like prolonged drought in Tanganyika especially in 1981-1984 and 1990 and 1990. That totally crippled the backbone of African economies which had largely depended on the export of raw materials in Europe. This forced the government to borrow money from foreign sources as to fight famine and maintain the supply of basic needs of the people, hence debt crisis.
Poor administration and planning many, African countries embarked on early industrialization which was too ambitious and lacked proper planning and often inappropriate for the needs and resources of the country. African countries imported all the expertise, technology, machinery, and building materials from Europe and North America. The same applied to the social amenities like education medical and transport facilities which African new leaders were determined to provide for their people. Within few years the debt problem was beyond imagination thus economic crisis as to pay the debts.
The fall and the fluctuating prices of agricultural products, The African new leaders’ inability to do much beyond enriching them selves was coincided in the mid of 1 960s with dramatic fall in world commodity prices for Africa’s principle agricultural exports. Manufactured imports upon which Africa had become too dependant thus became relatively much more expensive. Many countries begun to cut back on imports no matter how much they needed them, so as to pay the swelling of foreign debts, inflation rose rapidly and they were shortage of goods in the shops. That marked the beginning of the economic crisis. .
Corruption, embezzlement and lavish spending, many government of those countries that had achieved independence around 1 960s especially in West Africa, had spent lavishly upon expensive industrial and prestige projects with insufficient concern for their appropriateness. Ghana’s Akasombo dam was a case in point. This huge hydroelectric project saddled Ghana with a crippling international debt and in the long term provided little practical advantage to the majority of Ghanaians and many such projects occurred in many countries in Africa, thus development of debt crisis.
CAUSES OF ECONOMIC CRISIS IN TANZANIA
In Tanzania the debt crisis had increased due to some particular problems faced by the country in 1970s that included the following events;
The long drought season of 1973-1974 and 1981-1984 where agriculture came into a stand still.
The oil price crisis of 1976 in the Middle East hindered all economic activities in Tanganyika.
The fall of East African community in 1977 also affected Tanzania.
The war against Idd Amin in 1978 .brought high expenditure.
The nationalization of all parastatal bodies which the government spent a lot of money with no returns
IMPACTS OF DEBT ECONOMIC CRISIS.
Accumulation of debts brought debt crisis in the third world countries, because of high interest rate on the original principle( money borrowed initially) was accumulating at an alarming speed that many African nations failed to pay back the loans acquired.
Decreasing welfare of the masses because o debt servicing and debt payment e.g. in Tanzania 40% of the total internal revenue goes to pay debts acquired in the past. Many African governments abandoned their development programs as to reserve some foreign exchange to repatriate the debts.
Increasing foreign intervention and dependence of African economies to the metro pole, European nations and north America begun to intervene in African economies as to monitor their debts payment some countries begun to give economic advise to the African nations as to be able to pay back the loans ‘experts’ were sent from Europe to assist in planning.
Unfavorable balance of payment where by African foreign exchange is low than what it needs this is because of high demand of foreign goods and few export of goods to European nations, and the little foreign exchange that is acquired is spent in paying back the debts.
Increase in the level of poverty among the masses because of low investments in Africa like in the industrial sector that may increase the employment rate in the country. Despite low investments also social amenities which would have facilitated trade were ignored like roads railway harbors feeder roads, all this led to general underdevelopment of national economy because of paying the debts.
STEPS TAKEN BY TANGANYIKA TO SOLVE THE ECONOMIC CRISIS.
Tanzania has taken serious steps since independence so as to solve the problems of economic crisis, which had brought far reaching impact on the masses; the majority of the population in Tanzania is living below international poverty line surviving on less than $ 1 a day. That’s why the country has taken serious measures to curb the debt burden which is the major causative factor of poverty in the country. These problems were divided into three forms from 1961-1967.-1968-1985, 1986 — to the present.
From 1961 -1966.
The programme to solve the problems of economic crisis begun immediately after independence, with 3 years development plan that aimed at improving agriculture, communication and education based on communist model, that included egalitarian measures (equal opportunity for all ) such measures included the following programmes.
Socialism and self reliance made in February 1967, salaries of government employees from the president down, were reduced to normal and measures were set to ensure that no civil servant or M.P or TANU office holder should continue in office if he retained any interest in the private business or if he employed labor (except for seasonal agriculture workers) this was very instrumental in curbing corruption and office abuse by the politicians.
Diversion of resources from urban areas to rural development and within agriculture the concentration on the overall advance of peasant farming rather than on highly organized and capitalized schemes with an impact on limited number of farmers. Gradually it intended that the rural population will regroup itself into ujamaa villages in which the people will work together on communal land so that development can benefit the all community not few individuals.
Administrative and education curriculum was changed in order to change it from a colonial relic to means of preparation for life in a socialist Tanzania. The new values of cooperative basis, it was recognized that development plans must be worked out on the basis of country’s own resources with foreign assistance regarded as an extra bonus rather than the main determinant of what should be done.
Emphasis was now to be put on small scale projects which required the labor the labor of the people principally; the people themselves were to be responsible for the largely rural development rather than leaving the government to take all the initiatives.
Nationalization of land from the colonialists and distributed to the people for economic development, it was another solution of self reliance was the determination that control of all major sources of investable funds and other vital resources should be in hands of local people this led to the nationalization of all foreign banks and other commercial and manufacturing private companies under complete or partially state ownership.
Removal of head tax, this head tax had no any significance from the majority peasants in the rural areas, it was unpopular in many areas in the villages it increased rather poverty among the masses since it was inherited from colonialism, the government establishment new sources of revenue correction of various means.
Reforms in the army and the establishment of union government in 1964 with Zanzibar.
From 1967 -1980s.
Establishment of Ujamaa village, in 1973-74 around, 8000 of such villages had been created, by 1977 around five million people were moved in such villages, masses were taken in demarcated villages to carry out community agriculture following the Arusha declaration 5th February 1967.
Nationalization and establishment parastatal bodies like TANESCO, TRC, NIC to offer services to the people. Not to generate profit
Man power and national experts were trained from inside and out side the country to help in technical issues of the nation.
Introduction and expansion of primary and secondary industry on small scale and large like SIDO in 1973.
Development of infrastructures to offer social services to the people like railways TAZARA, KIA in 1970s.
Expansion of agriculture by using slogan like “siasa ni kilimo” in 1972 to train peasant modern methods for cultivation.
Introduction of self reliance education to all citizens of Tanzania
Introduction of free universal education and adult education to remove illiteracy rate.
From1986- Present.
Introduction of trade liberalization policy that private businesses were allowed to operate along side with government parastatals.
Privatizations of some public enterprises where the government floated some of her shares to the public or fully privatized.
Acquiring of new loans and grants from IMF and World bank for national development.
Adoption of national human resource deployment programme. (Nguvu kazi).
WORLD BANK AND IMF AS A SOLUTION TO AFRICAN ECONOMIC PROBLEM
BACKGROUND
The IMF was established on 27th December 1945 its headquarters are in Washington D.C USA, it was established as a result of Bretton Woods conference and her sister institution of world Bank. The major objectives of IMF and World Bank were; to promote international co operation, Economic growth and to eliminate all international trade barriers.
The trouble is that the IMF and its associate world bank , both Washington-based, are financed by the banks of ‘developed’ capitalist nations of western Europe and north America their priorities have reflected the interest of the capitalist ‘West’ which still regards African primarily as a source of raw materials for its own developed industries.
Following the worsening of economic conditions in many African states in 1980s-1990s African exports dropped in price ten or twenty times in relation with the manufactured imports. Running out of foreign exchange, even ‘self reliance’ government like that of Tanzania had to turn to, IMP for emergency foreign exchange and or further loans to pay the interest for the loans already too large them ever to pay off.
To get access to the funds of IMF it set some preconditions known as Structural adjustment programme (SAP) that aimed for economic recovery of African economies. Unfortunately these policies of SAP applied universally, have been modeled on the practices of developed capitalist system rather than on the specific needs and best interest of the individual African countries concerned. What were presented as solutions to underlying problems carried with them even greater problem of their own.
How ever some African scholars are viewing IMF and World Bank as institution of former colonial masters representing the interest of the imperialists through their new form of colonialism, known as neo colonialism, IMF and World bank are just increasing the African problems than they have solved, SAP has brought more poverty, and misery than it found.
CONDITIONALITIES OF STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMME (S.A.P)
The first condition was that the government was suppose to balance their budgets: in theory it meant a cut in annual growth of government debt such move affected much the social infrastructure development that were suppose to be provided by the government.
The second conditionality was to devaluation of the local currency: this aimed at making the exports to fetch high prices like cash crops and minerals in the world market. But also made imports more expensive since local currency had no value in relation to the foreign currency
Introduction of liberalization of capital controls, this aimed at solving the problem of lack of inadequate indigenous capital for investments through trade liberalization aimed at attracting foreign investments with foreign capital to improve the terms of trade. The policy also aimed at avoiding government monopoly control over foreign exchange and import restrictions and abandons trade protectionism.
Privatization of public entities owned by the government, so that the government should not own all business, but must share with the private investors both local and foreign to ensure proper management and to avoid unprofitable business.
Introducing free foreign exchange market to the public and to abolish the monopoly of government control over prices in the market, this was seen as one of the way to boost internal trade and to allow price mechanism to determine the prices.
Adoption of multiparty politics and abolish mono-party politics, this will work as check and balance to the ruling government where by abuses like corruption nepotism and abuse of public office can be dealt with by the opposition side of the government, that eventually good governance of transparency and accountability can be achieved.
To form a strong revenue body like T.R.A. that its corruption free to correct taxes from the business people as to control government budget deficits by increasing government revenues.
Reduce spending on public services by the government cost sharing must be introduced in some public services: the funding should be by individual and private groups this was targeting education and healthy sector.
Reduce the workforce by reducing the number of people employed by the government as to reduce government expenditure and to maintain efficiency.
IMPACTS OF SAP TO THE AFRICAN ECONOMY.
It led to mass un-employment because of because of the retrenchment policy of civil servants, whereby their life became misery no income the termination benefits given to them were meager to continue life.
Some policies of S.A.P ware impracticable hence promoted chaos violence and internal disputes in Africa like privatizing of all public enterprises.
It increased poverty, suffering and civil wars among the Africans since most of the policies increase dependency ratio between the African nations with the Europeans donor countries.
It increased corruption especially in privatization where transparency and un-accountability were non existent for stance secret agreement from the public in selling public entities embezzlement of funds.
It has undermined democracy and increase the existence of puppet leaders in many African nations that have adopted S .A.P. who are for the interest of the foreigners.
It has led to the influx of more capitalist investors to own essential investment in the nation like TANESCO, T.T.C.L this makes the economy to be owned by foreigners. Who are profits motivated rather than service oriented.
The devaluation of local currencies and the scrapping away of government subsidies in public sector like healthy have led to increase of income inequality which increases the level of poverty in the country.
NEO-COLONIALISM.
Background
Neo-Colonialism, Refers to the indirect control of the African nation by their former colonial masters socially, politically, and economically. This came about following the attainment of flag independence from the colonial masters. The colonial administrators took steps to ensure that their economic interest would not be jeopardized by the transfer of power.
One of the methods was to prepare ground for the creation of puppet leaders by involving leaders of national movement into colonial government. This ensured that emerging leaders were groomed to up hold the existing exploitative relations.
Secondly the process of handing over power ensured that neo colonial relation would follow independence as to grantee the economic interest of the former colonial master, the constitution was made and approved by the colonialists, they made sure that the western model of political authority was followed in the independent country, The strategic sectors were preserved to the colonial masters like Finance, and International relation. In fact even in those fields that African was given responsibility the colonial did not vacant.
FORMS OF NEO-COLONIALISM.
Neo-colonialisrn has got four forms and it’s through these forms African countries are controlled and exploited by their former colonial masters and other capitalist countries, like USA. In other words how neo colonialism operates, as to meet the interest of the imperialists.
ECONOMIC FORM
Through massive investment by imperialist multi-corporations companies, as a way to exploit market area for investment and cheap labor of Africa e.g. such corporations include. Coca-Cola, Barclays Banks, Shell mining companies etc.
Through controlling the World market by fixing price of African cash crops by keeping the prices low so that African remain dependant to their aid.
To make Africa a damping place for cheap European manufactured goods, so that Africa remain dc-industrialize, and depend on them for consumer goods.
Monopolizing technology by preventing Africans to engage into new technologies
e.g. EEC - ACP relation signed in 1976 between European Economic Community and African Caribbean and Pacific, prohibiting African nation to produce sensitive commodities that are produced by European nations.
Through giving loans and grants under World Bank and IMF to Africans with very high interest rate and unrealistic conditions, this proves hard for African nations to pay back, that result into debt burden.
Sending of European ‘expatriates’ to work in African countries for interests of their countries and then are given higher standard of living than the local people like high wages expensive accommodation, luxurious cars, which makes all the funds given as aid to be spent to the foreigner expatriates.
Through international financial organs like IMF, W.B, IBRD, EU, GATT etc to make policies that enable them to continue exploiting the third World countries e.g. S.A.P.
POLITICAL FORMS.
Through establishing relation with a ruling class and create a puppet leader, so that can be influenced according to their interest (the imperialist.)
Through political influence and ideology following the imperialist democracies like parliamentary system election and multi party system, under the influence of UN.
Through propaganda of mass media making Africans to listen their radios like BBC, CNN, VOA, D.W
Through planting and supporting puppet leaders who serve their interests e.g. Yoweri Museveni in Uganda J. Rawlings in Ghana.
Over throwing communist oriented government and putting capitalist based government e.g. Zaire in case of Lumumba in l96O and Ghana in case of Nkrumah
IDEOLOGICAL METHODS.
Through influence of films, books, and education syllabus where by the curriculum is developed by the agents of colonialist that it is European based to a big extent.
Provision of scholarships to Africans to study abroad, in their countries.
Brainwashing Africans through ideological indoctrination.
MILITARY METHODS.
Establishment of military bases e.g. USA has got 234 military base in 44 countries of Africa.
To provide military assistance like weapons and instructors to train African military men.
By conducting coup d’état in the case of stubborn leaders who are against their economic interests.
HOW AFRICAN COUNTRIES SHOULD DISENGAGE FROM NEO-COLONIALISM.
By developing self sustainable and self reliance economies which may reduce the problem of dependence to the metropole.
African should develop science and technology of their own, by encouraging science subjects in school and higher institutions, research must be conducted often to come out with new ideas, instead of depending foreign on technology.
African should encourage and strengthen the regional integration which may increase their economic power and political dominance. E.g. EAC, SADC, ECO WAS, etc.
African countries should diversify their economies from monoculture to both industrial and agricultural sector, this will reduce over dependence of one sector, so that incase of the collapse of prices of one sector should not heavily affect the national economy
African should socialize and nationalize productive forces to reduce individual monopolies in economic and political power.
African should form democracy, transparence accountability in public offices to reduce the danger of corruption nepotism and embezzlement
To reject western interference in the political, economic and social affairs of African issues so as we develop an independent decisions and independent mind.
African should reject western standards like culture dressing foods and etc because they only create market for European goods and make African damping place. This discourages the development of infant industries in the continent.
Avoid civil war and conflicts that bring about economic backwardness and concentrate on political solution to iron out internal dispute instead of applying gun
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CHAPTER 4
AFRICA IN
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
THE ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (O.A.U)
The organization of African unity was founded on 25’ May 1963 in Addis Ababa Ethiopia by thirty- two heads of state of then independent African states the first chairman was Emperor Haile Sellasie of Ethiopia. This was inspired by pan — Africanist sentiment of bringing all people of African origin both in the Diaspora and Africa under a single organization, to fight and protect their rights.
Nkurumah one of the pioneers of African union and the founding father of Ghana was greatly influenced by his education in USA. he believed that the only way to achieve complete economic as well as political freedom from European domination was to create a powerful new ‘United states of Africa’ then through continental wide cooperation, Africa would really take place on the world economic and political stage on terms o equality. In unity Nkrumah saw strength, but in practical terms his dream proved illusory.
OBJECTIVES OF O.A.U
The primary aim of OAU was to promote African unity and solidarity as the only way forward to achieve complete economic as well as political freedom from other countries of the world, because unity and solidarity would make Africa a superpower among other countries.
To co-ordinate and intensify the cooperation and the efforts of African states to achieve a better living of people of Africa and also to help the speeding up of the decolonization in the rest of Africa.
To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African states, one of the OAU principle states the acceptance of the principle of non interference in internal affairs of member state.
To eradicate all forms of colonialism in Africa and acts of slavery in the entire continent of Africa by promoting freedom and human rights to be given first priority.
To promote international cooperation in accordance of the United Nations Organization and the universal declaration of human rights.
PRINCIPLES OF O.A.U
The existence of sovereign equality of all members.
Non interference in the internal affairs of the member states.
Respect for the sovereignty and the inalienable right to independent of all member states
Peaceful settlement of disputes by negotiation, mediation and conciliation or arbitration
The affirmation of the policy of non-alignment
Unreserved condemnation of political assassination as well as of subversive activities against any member state.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF O.A.U
It achieved to unite the diverse countries of Africa; this has been attained despite discrepancies in political ideology, levels of economic development, language colonial experience and vast geographical differences. There was of course disagreement between states and groups of states but its main aim was unity and OAU survived its first three decades with no permanent sprit.
It has achieved in providing a forum for discussing common problems of African states and offering solution like discrimination or apartheid, diseases and civil wars among others. Which to a big extent have been dealt with.
The regular meetings of ministers and heads of state have helped to generate greater awareness of other countries problem
OAU has also achieved in Liberation’ of Africa from colonialism e.g. Zimbabwe, Angola, and Namibia, through the provision of moral and material support to .the nationalistic movements in various nations.
The African development bank, which grew out of the OAU in 1967, became an invaluable tool for mobilizing world finance for Africa development projects. The idea of coordinating and mobilizing international capital for the benefit of Africa was of particular value during the 1 970s and early 1 980s.
O.A.U has provided many African refugees with jobs and education, who came as a result of internal conflicts in various African nations
The organization has taken measures to improve agriculture, industry, transport and communication trade and education cooperation in various countries.
The meeting of heads of states each year to discuss the problems and achievement of the continent is one of the achievements.
Many conflicts have been solved by the organization in the continent e.g. the war between Tanzania and Uganda 1978, Mali and Burkina Faso 1985, Kenya and Somalia 1970 etc.
OAU has encouraged Regional integration among is member states, such as ECOWAS 1975, SADC 1980, COMESA 1993, has its roots from O.AU.
OAU has achieved in acting as chief mediator between various African states to avoid the occurrence of bloodshed e.g. between Ethiopia and Eritrea.
PROBLEMS OF O. A. U
A member state decides individually and voluntarily to be the member of the organization and it could withdraw its membership at any time that it fills to do so, this weakens the strength of the organization e.g Morroco is not a member.
Another big problem that faced OAU was that it had no legal sanction to enforce its resolutions. Member state could decide to refuse or ignore to implement the organizations decisions, that is why it has always been blamed for being little more than ‘a talking-shop’ with no serious implementation of her resolutions.
Lack of adequate funds it largely based on the annual contributions of member states Most of the member states delayed to pay or defaulted to pay their contributions, this made the organization to fail to run its activities.
Unequal development of the members of the organization caused by poverty, illiteracy, and unequal distribution o resources.
There are many refugees in Africa which is the result of civil wars in many areas of the continent such as Burundi, D.RC, Sudan, Somalia, etc.
The continent is still poor depending on debts and loans from World Bank and I.M.F, with difficult conditionalities to fulfill.
Differences in languages and religion, some societies are proud of their mother tongue; other countries are using English, others Arabic, French etc every state/tribe wants to use the language of her interest. There is tension between fundamentalist Muslims who want to apply Sharia law while Christians wants western system of democracy.
African countries are affected by natural disasters such as drought, floods, earthquake, A.I.D.S, etc these affects the welfare of the people.
Difference in ideology of the member states, head of states are unable to come together to discuss their problems.
Lack of a single currency to be used by all member states since it isn’t decided on to be used; this hinders trade activities in the continent.
Weak economic base of many of the member states most of the member state had just got their independence from European imperialist nations; all are based on production of primary goods of agriculture products and minerals that fetched little prices.
The Formation of AU (AFRICAN UNION)
AU is the organization of African countries which originally started by the declaration to the heads of states and Government of the O.A.U. to establish African Union on 9 —9-1999. The Constitutive Act of the African Union was adopted and entered into force in 2000 at the Lome summit in Togo. In 2001 the African countries putdown the plan for the implementation of the Union in Lusaka while in 2002 they held the first Assembly of the Heads of states of AU in Durban where Thabo Mbeki of South Africa became the 1t chairman. Its headquarters are in Addis-Ababa, Ethiopia
The Reason Which Led to the Rise of AU
The fulfillment of the basic O.A.U objectives led to the formation of AU. Formerly O.A.U. had succeeded to achieve such objectives like eradication of colonialism in Mozambique, Angola , Zimbabwe, and destruction of apartheid in South Africa. Then, the leaders realized that there was a need to create a new organization which dealt with the social, economic and political problems in the rapid changing world in 1990’s. During this time Africa faced economic decline, unfavourable economic relationship with the developed nation and the rise of new political systems. There was a need to make an organization to unite Africans against the problems from the situation which prevailed at the moment.
Objectives /Goals of AU
African Union has so many objectives:
To achieve greater unity and solidarity between the African countries and the people themselves.
To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of members.
To accelerate or increase the political and socio-economic integration (unity) of the continent.
To promote and defend African common positions on issues of interest to the continent and its people.
To, encourage international co-operation in line with the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
To promote peace, security and stability in Africa.
To promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation and goods governance.
To promote and protect human and peoples’ rights in line with the African charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and other relevant human rights instruments.
To establish the necessary conditions which enable Africa to play its rightful role in the global or world economy through international negotiations.
To promote sustainable development at the economic, social and cultural levels as well as the integration of economies.
To promote co-operation in all fields of human activity to raise the living standard of African peoples.
To coordinate and harmonize the policies between the existing and future Regional Economic communities and the gradual achievement o the objectives of AU.
To enhance the development of the continent promoting research in all the fields especially Science and technology.
To work with relevant international partners in the elimination of preventable disease and the promotion of health on the continent.
The Organs of the African Union
A.U has about 10 organs which included:
(1) The Assembly- It is a supreme organ of the Union. It is composed of heads of states and Government. It has to meet at least once a year in ordinary session, at the request of any member state and on approval by a two thirds majority of member states. It is headed by a chairman for a period of one year.
Its functions are:-
Determine the common policies of the Union.
Receive, consider and take decision on reports and recommendations from the other organs of the Union.
Consider requests for membership of the Union.
Establish any organ of the Union.
Monitor the implementation of policies and decisions of the Union as well as ensure compliance by all members.
Adopt the budget of the Union.
Give directives to the Executive council on the management of conflict war and restoration of peace.
Appoint and terminate appointments of judges of the court of justice
Appoint the Chairman of the commission and his or her deputy and the commissioners as well as determining their functions and terms of office.
(2) The Executive Council — It is composed by the ministers of Foreign Affairs or such other Ministers as decided by Member states. The Executive Council meets twice a year in ordinary session. It also has to meet in extra ordinary session at the request of any member states and upon approval of 2/3 of all members.
(3) The Pan - African Parliament - It is established in order to provide a chance for full participation of African people in the development and economic integration of the continent. The first speaker has been Gertrude Mongella from Tanzania since 2004. The post will be succeeded by many officials from the members in future.
(4) The African court of Justice- when it is fully established its functions and -composition will be given by the union.
(5) The commission - It is the secretariat of the union. It is composed of the chairman, his deputies and the commissioners together with other staff. The Assembly is responsible to provide the functions and regulations of the commission. The current chairman of the commission is H.E. Alpha Oumar Konare of Mali.
(6) The Permanent Representative Committee - It is charged with the responsibility of preparing the work of Executive council. ft acts also on the instructions of Executive council. It may set up sub-committee or groups as it sees necessary
(7) The Specialized Technical Committees - it includes:
The committee on Rural Economy and Agricultural matters.
The committee on Monetary and Financial Affairs.
The committee on Trade, Customs and Immigration Matters.
The committee on Industry, Science and Technology, Energy Natural Resources and Environment.
The committee on Transport, Communications and Tourism.
The committee on Labour, Health and Social Affairs.
The committee on Education, Culture and Human resources. -
The Assembly has to restructure the existing committees and establish others. The body is composed by ministers with competence of respective areas.
The functions of the committees are:
To prepare projects and programmes of the Union and submit it to the Executive council.
Ensure the supervision, follow-up and the evaluation of the implementation of decisions taken by organization of the union.
Coordinate the projects and programmes of the Union.
Submit reports and recommendations on the implementations of the Act of the Union to the Executive council.
Carry out other functions as assigned to any of the committees.
(8) The Economic Social and Cultural Council -This is an advisory organ which is made of professional groups of the member states. All its functions have to be given out by the Assembly.
(9) The Peace and Security Council —It is a body which will deal with peace keeping and conflicts settlements in the member states.
(10) The Financial Institutions — The Union intends to have the African central Bank, the Africa monetary fund and the African Investment Bank to provide financial help to its members.
Problems Which Threaten future success of AU
There are so many problems:
Lack of fund —most of its member are poor nations. It does not get enough money to run its activities.
Civil war in countries such as Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Sudan, Northern Uganda seem to keep these countries far from the goals of AU.
Corruption such as mismanagement of public money by the leader like former president of Zambia, Mr. Chiluba discourages good governance which is on of the interests of AU.
Poor infrastructure such as roads, railways and water ways continued to weaken smooth transport of raw materials from productive areas to industries as well as transport of products from towns to the rural areas.
Epidemics such as HIV/AIDs kills skilled labour which would have been used by AU to develop many sectors like agriculture, industries, fishing and tourism.
Unfovaurable economic relationship between African countries and developed nations still makes African countries fall behind than what is required in economic and social development. They export products to world market and sell them at lower price which in turn could not develop the AU members. All these problems threaten future success of AU.
The Benefits of AU to Tanzania
There are so many benefits which will be acquired by Tanzania from being a member of AU. The benefits include:
Tanzania would get an opportunity to unite with other African countries to solve political conflicts peacefully in several African states and the country will use AU to discuss for the presence of good relationship between Africa, Europe and U.S.A.
Tanzania will make friendship with other African countries through the joint activities and programmes in social and economic sectors. This condition would reduce the number of countries which might have intended to act as enemies of Tanzania on the continent.
Tanzania will get new ideas and information that will be used to solve many problems which exist in agriculture, industry and the 1ea4Th sectors. They will be obtained from various meetings and workshops attended by the leaders of the government.
The financial institutions such as the African central bank and the African investment bank obviously would provide money as loans and grants to Tanzania. The money would be used by the country to develop agricultural production, science and technology, transport and education.
NEPAD (The New Partnership for Africa’s Development)
New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) in the 21st century is a started programme under African Union which intends to bring political, social and economic development in the 21st century.
The Origins of NEPAD
The NEPAD came from a mandate given to the five initiating Heads of States in Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria, Senegal and South Africa by the Organization of African Unity (OAU) to develop an integrated socio-economic development framework for Africa. The 37th Summit of OAU in July, 2001 officially adopted NEPAD as a strategic framework document for African development.
The NEPAD Objectives
To eradicate poverty.
To place African countries, both individual and collectively, on a path of sustainable growth and development;
To halt the marginalization of Africa in the globalization process and advance its full and beneficial integration into the global economy.
To accelerate the empowerment of women.
The Principles of NEPAD
Good governance as a basic requirement for peace, security and sustainable political and socio-economic development;
African ownership and leadership, as well as broad and deep participation by all sectors of society; in the realization of African development.
Bring the development of Africa on its resources and resourcefulness of its people. The principle likely encourage self reliance of African countries.
Partnership between and amongst African peoples in performing various socio-economic development programmes.
Acceleration of regional and continental integration among members of African Union.
Building the competitiveness of African countries and the continent in the world economy.
Forging a new international partnership that changes the unequal relationship between Africa and the developed world; and
Ensuring that all Partnership programme with NEPAD are linked to the Millennium Development Goals and other agreed development goals and targets of the United Nations.
The NEPAD Priorities
The priorities of NEPAD are chosen key areas which have to draw the attention of the members. They are divided into three areas such as:
(a) Establishing the conditions for sustainable development by ensuring
Peace and security exist in African countries.
Democracy and good political, economic and good governance among the people of Africa.
Regional co-operation and integration whereby all countries have to work together for their own development.
Provision of help which enables African states achieves prosperity.
(b) Policy change and increased investment in the following priority sectors such as:
Agriculture which intends to bring food once it is improved.
Human development with a focus on health, education, science and technology and skills development.
Building and improving infrastructure, including Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Energy, Transport, Water and Sanitation.
Promoting diversification of production and exports, particularly with respect to agro-industries, manufacturing, mining, mineral beneficiation and tourism.
Accelerating intra-African trade and improving access to markets of developed countries.
The protection of environment in Africa.
(c) Mobilizing Resources by
Increasing domestic savings and investments.
Improving management of public revenue and expenditure by avoiding misuse of the revenue.
Improving Africa’s share in global trade by exporting products to be sold at fair prices.
Attracting foreign direct investment to African countries.
Increasing capital flows through further debt reduction and increase of aid flows to African countries. Members should work to eliminate debt problem.
Desired Outcomes of NEPAD
NEPAD laid down its outcomes in Africa. The most important outcomes are:
Africa becomes more effective in conflict prevention and the establishment of enduing peace on the continent.
Africa adopt and implements principles of democracy and good political economic and good governance, and the protection of human rights becomes further entrenched in every African country.
Africa develops and implements effective poverty eradication programmes and accelerates the pace of achieving African development goals, particularly human development.
Africa achieves increased levels of domestic savings, as well as investments, both domestic and foreign investments.
Africa achieves desired ability for policy development, coordination and negotiation in the international cooperation, to ensure its beneficial engagement in the world economy, especially on trade and market access issues.
Regional integration is further accelerated and higher levels of sustainable economic growth in Africa would be achieved.
Genuine partnerships will be established between Africa and the developed countries based on mutual respect and equality.
THE STRUCTURE OF NEPAD
The structure of NEPAD is the organs which implement the decisions passed by the member countries to achieve objectives. The highest authority of the NEPAD implementation process is the Heads of States and Government Summit of the African Union, formerly known as the O.A.U.
The Heads of State and Government Implementation Committee (HSIC) Comprises 3 states per AU region as mandated by the OAU Summit of July 2001 and ratified by the AU Summit of July 2002. The HSIC reports to the AU Summit on an annual basis.
The Steering Committee of NEPAD comprises the Personal Representatives of the NEPAD Heads of State and Government. This Committee oversees projects and programme of development.
The NEPAD Secretariat coordinates implementation of projects and programmes approved by the HSI (The Heads of States and Government Implementation Committee).
EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY (E.A.C)
BACKGROUND
It was founded on 6 June 1967; the government of Tanganyika, Kenya and, Uganda signed a treaty in Kampala Uganda. Its history goes back to 1923 when the governor of Tanganyika, Kenya, and Uganda formed the East African Governors Conference to facilitate the cooperation. In 1948 it changed to East Africa high Commission, in 1961 the East Africa common services organization was established.
AIMS OF THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY
To promote free trade in goods and services produced among the members.
To provide common services such as railways, harbors, posts and telecommunication.
To provide wider and more secure market for industrial and agricultural goods
To allow free movement of people in the region for trade recreation and other social activities.
To achieve technological innovation and advancement.
To conduct research activities in agriculture, population, medicine and mining for its development.
It aims at solving region problems jointly by the heads of the member states
PROBLEMS OF E.A.C
The problem of the distribution of different services, the distribution was more beneficial to Kenya than Uganda and Tanzania.
Border conflicts e.g. between Tanzania and Uganda during ldd Amin.
The ideological disparity between the three countries, Tanzania self reliance and socialism, Kenya capitalist ideology, Uganda during Idd Amin fascism.
Uneven distribution of the community cake, Kenya took a lion share at the expense of Uganda and Tanzania.
The organization had its roots from colonial period nothing changed fundamentally that
Britain went on benefiting through Kenya.
The East African Bank failed a balance development of industries in the three countries Kenya benefited more than Tanzania and Uganda in income tax and custom duties.
Currency differences the governments restricted free transfer and exchange of currency. This discourages interstate transactions in goods.
The community experienced great losses and debts.
The failure of the member country to contribute the agreed fees
THE SOUTHERN ARICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY -S.A.D.C.
It was formed as the replacement of Southern African Development coordination Conference-SADCC formed in I 980.It was in 1993 when it was changed to SADC. This is an association of eleven countries such as Angola, Botswana. Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia Zimbabwe and South Africa.
OBJECTIVES SADC
To help member states to have a genuine and equitable regional integration.
To mobilize the regional resources for their benefit.
To foster international cooperation.
To enhance the development o industries, trade mining and agriculture and energy resources.
To improve transport and communication links.
To improve internal market.
PROBLEMS OF SADC.
Weak financial base, members rely on foreign aid and loan.
Members produce similar agricultural goods such as coffee, sisal, tobacco which compete for market.
All members depend on agriculture rather than industries, when the price of agricultural commodities fluctuates which leads to low earnings.
Lack of qualified and skilled man power to run the organization, they depend on foreign experts.
Unequal distribution of the benefits of the association discourages other states.
Every member tries to cater her national interest first rather than those of SADC
THE COMMON MARKET FOR EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA (COMESA)
Before 1993 COMESA was known as the Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern Africa- P.T.A. The heads of member states met in Kampala Uganda on 61h November 1993 and signed a treaty which created COMESA. A member of COMESA includes Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Lesotho Botswana, Swaziland, Mauritius, Comoro, Djibouti, Ethiopia Somalia and South Africa.
OBJECTIVES OF COMESA
Promoting and facilitating cooperation among member countries in trade, trade, transport and communication.
Harmonizing and coordinating development strategies, policies and plans within the region
It encourages cooperation in monetary and financial affairs in order to facilitate sub regional integration.
It aims at establishing joint industrial and agricultural institution to raise the production capacity.
It aims at reducing and eventually eliminating tariffs among members in order to facilitate trade
It encourages economic independence of the region by establishing strong economic base
ACHIVEMENT OF COMESA
Member states have become more cooperative in the field of trade of trade, industry and agriculture.
The organization has also established a bank known as the trade and development bank situated in Bujumbura Burundi which finances trade and development projects
PROBLEMS OF COMESA
Different levels of development of member states
Poor transport shipping facilities and communication links
Existence of too many currencies in the region
Weak economic base of member states ie dependency economies
Civil wars, natural calamities and neo colonialism
The Reasons Which Made Tanzania Withdraw From COMESA:
As shown earlier Tanzania withdrew from COMESA in 2002. There are various reasons which made this country move out of the organization.
Firstly, Tanzania was discouraged by political conflicts in Zimbabwe and Civil war in Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia. She realized there could not be effective economic co-operation with the members which had these problems at the moment.
Secondly, the country wanted to maximize her efforts in some organizations like East African Community which was formed in early 2000s’. The government could not be able to unite fully with other EAC if she was still a member in many other organizations.
Thirdly, Tanzania withdrew from COMESA because she was avoiding duplication of regional co-operation. The country learnt that there was no new benefits the people could get from COMESA. Most of the benefits were similar with those which were gained from SADC and EAC.
Fourthly, financial contributions to various economic organizations became a burden on the government expenditure. The country could not be able to collect and spend money in many organizations like SADC, EAC, AU and COMESA. Withdrawal from COMESA was a way to reduce financial cost on regional co-operation
Fifthly, Tanzania moved out of COMESA as a way to protect its industrial development from other COMESA members such as Kenya, South Africa and Zimbabwe. This country still lagged behind in industries. She feared that those countries could use many opportunities in regional co-operation to export manufactured goods which could compete against the products from Tanzania industries. Thus, she withdrew to protect domestic industries and their markets.
All the points given above could explain the possible reasons which made Tanzania move out of COMESA in 2002
THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS)
The economic community of west Africa was found on 28thi may 1975, member states includes Guinea ,Ivory Coast ,Mauritania ,Senegal ,Benin ,Mali ,Niger ,Burkina Faso ,Gambia, Ghana ,Sierra Leon ,Liberia, Guinea Bissau, Togo, Cameroon ,Cape Verde and Nigeria.
AIMS OF ECOWAS.
ECOWAS aimed at removing barriers and allowing free movement of people services and capital for the development of the member states.
It aims at developing industries, agriculture and mining by using good and applicable policies.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF ECOWAS
The organization has managed to set energy resource development fund for oil mining industry in the region.
There have been agriculture and communication development of the whole part of the region this has been through special fund to develop the projects and through joint ventures between members.
PROBLEMS OF ECOWAS.
Each member wants to benefit more than the other members of the community according to their interests.
Political instability affects member states, there have been civil wars and coup d’état in ‘the region e.g. Nigeria, Sierra Leon, Liberia, Ivory Coast etc.
Poor communication network system in many parts of the region hinders organization activities to all places
Language differences, other members are using English others French, this causes communication barrier between members.
Lack of a single currency creates the problem of the rate of exchange between the member states.
The problem of members to have a membership in more than one organization, all the organization have demands in terms of contributions i.e. it’s difficult to contribute membership to all the organizations due to poverty.
AFRICA IN THE WORLD INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
The world international organizations are referred as co-operation between the countries which exist in the world between various continents. This sub-topic intends to examine the origin objectives and the way African countries have joined and benefited from the world international organizations popularly mentioned as the United Nations, Common wealth of Nations, the French Community and Non —Aligned Movement (NAM).
United Nations (UN)
United Nation (UN) is an organization of the world independent countries which was formed to promote and maintain international peace and security after the failure of the League of Nations in the prevention of the rise of the Second World War of 1939-1945.
The charter of the formation of UN was originally drawn by the representatives of 50 countries in San Francisco USA on 26th June - 1945. But the representatives made the charter on the basis of the ideas and proposal given out by the delegates from China, USSR, UK and U.S.A in 1944. After its formation Poland immediately signed the charter and became one of the original 51 member states of the UN.
The UN officially came into existence on 24th October —1945 when the charter was formally approved by China, France, the Soviet Union (USSR) UK (Britain) and USA and by a majority of other countries. Its headquarters today are in New York USA and the United Nations day is always celebrated on 24thOctober each year.
Objectives of United Nations
Objectives of UN are all the desired ends which UN intends to achieve as the members work together as world independent states. Objectives are:
Maintain peace and security internationally.
Develop friendly relations among nations.
Encourage international co-operation in solving economic, social, political and humanitarian problems.
Promote international respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
UN becomes a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in attainment the objectives
The Principles of UN
The principles are guidelines of UN as it works to achieve its goals. The principles are:
All its member states are sovereign and equal.
All its members have to fulfill in good faith the charter obligations
All its member countries have to solve international conflicts peacefully without jeopardizing peace, security and justice.
Members must avoid the threat or use of force against other states.
Members should provide any help in the action it takes.
Members should not give help to any nation being under punitive measures.
Non members have to act according to these principles in order to maintain world peace and security.
UN should not interfere in internal matters of any nation:
The Organs of UN
There are important organs through which UN performs its duties such organs include.
(a)The UN General Assembly: - This is an organ made by all member states. All member states always have one vote regardless of size and powers. Decisions on issues require two thirds of members votes. It functions are:
Recommends on the world peace, security, disarmament and regulation of armament
Discuss any matter which endangers peace and security.
Elects non-Permanent members of security council and Judge of International court of justice jointly with the security Council
The latest UN General Assembly took place in September, 2004, in New York, U.S.A
(b) Secretariat — it is an organ which is headquartered in New York, USA. It contains international civil servants under the leadership of the General secretary who is appointed by the General Assembly on the basis of recommendations by the Security Council.
There have been several General Secretaries since the creation of this organ. These officials by their names included:
Trygve Lief of Norway from 1946-1952.
Dag Hammarskjold of Sweden from 1953-1 961.
UThantMyanmar(Burma) 1961-1971.
Kurt Waldheim of Austria from 1972-1981.
Javier de Perez de Cuellar of Peru from 1982-1991.
Boutros Bountros —Ghali of Egypt from 1992-1996.
Kofi Anan of Ghana from 1997-2006
Ban Ki-Moon of South Korea from 2007 to the present until the appointment of new secretary.
The Secretariat carries out important functions such as:
i. It administers peace keeping operations in many countries which have wars and conflicts.
ii. It implements the decisions of the General Assembly and the Security Council.
iii. Informs the world’s communications media about the work of United Nations.
iv. It mediates international disputes.
v. Interprets speeches and translate documents into the UN’s official languages.
vi. It draws annual budget of the UN
(c) The Security - It an organ which makes decisions that bind all other UN members. Before 1963 the council had only eleven members of which 6 members were elected by the General Assembly for a two years terms and there was also five permanent members. After 1963 the number of members increased to fifteen including the permanent members such as Britain, USA, France, USSR and China and Ten Non-Permanent members continued to be elected for two years terms.
The UN Secretary Council has a veto vote in which all the decisions can not be passed unless all five permanent members approve the decisions. When any permanent member casts a “No” vote the decision automatically get blocked. This situation creates dissatisfaction among other members; today they demand more enlargement of the permanent membership seat so as to include many countries from Africa, Asia, and Latin America in deciding matters of the UN. They also recommend the elimination of veto which is used to defend the interests of few people.
The functions of UN Security Council are:
Maintain international peace and security in line with the principles and purposes of the United Nations.
To investigate any conflict or situation which can lead to international war
To formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armament.
To persuade members of UN to fix sanctions on the aggressive states.
Takes military actions against the aggressors.
Recommends the admission of new members.
Recommends the appointment of the secretary - General to the UN General Assembly.
Works with the General Assembly to elect the judges of International court of Justice.
(d) International court of Justice- This is a court of 15 judges who are elected by the General Assembly and Security Council. It has headquarters at Hague, Netherlands. Its judges are elected for 9 years. The court normally deals with all matters of the UN charter. However, the decisions only advise the General Assembly and the Security Council.
(e) Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) - It is an organ which works through UN specialized agencies and other autonomous bodies in the UN system. It promotes high standard of living, economic and social development as well as respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. There are several UN specialized agencies under ECOSOC. Some of those institutions include:
(i) FAQ - (Food and Agriculture organization) was founded in Quebec, Canada on 16th October, 1945
(ii) ILO — (International Labour organization) - It was firstly formed under the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. It allied with UN as specialized agency to raise up the living standard of the workers.
(ii) UNESCO - (The UN International Children and Education Fund). It was founded in December1946 to provide care for children.
(iv) WHO — (The World Health organization). It was founded on 7th —April —1947 as autonomous organization to improve health for all people in the world. Its head office is in Paris, France . It has worked under ECOSOC to eliminate health problems in the world.
(v) UNHCR - (The UN High Commission For Refugees). It started in 1951 to help people who are forcefully shifting their nations as refugees.
(vi) UNCTAD - (The Conference on Trade and Development). It began on 20th December, 1994 to promote international trade
(vii) UNDP - (The UN Development Programme it was formed in 1965
(viii) UNIDO — (The UN Industrial Development Organization) it was made in 1967 to promote industries.
(ix) GATT — (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) it was made in order to make the developed world fix lower tariffs and fair prices of products from developing countries.
(f) Trusteeship Council -It was an organ which was formed in 1945 to supervise the administration of the Trust territories .taken from the Mandate status of the League of Nations .The aim of the trusteeship council was to prepare the trust territories such as Tanganyika, Rwanda Burundi and Namibia for their self- government and independence. The council was allowed to examine and discuss the reports from the administering authority on the political, social and economic progress of people in the territories. The members of the council were, all. five permanent members of the Security council such as China, France, Russia, United Kingdom and U.S.A. The council suspended its duties on 1st, November, 1994 when Palau, the last remaining trust territory achieved independence on 1St November-1994.
The Achievements of UN
Since the creation of UN there have been several achievement reached by this organization. They included:
UN has assisted many countries in the struggle for independence. Many countries which are members of UN were helped by the organization in the elimination of colonialism. UN worked tirelessly in ending apartheid in South Africa. It put economic sanctions, arms embargo to the white regime. The United Nations General Assembly even called apartheid a crime against humanity. All these efforts led to the elections in April, 1994 in which African people got a chance to participate on equal terms with the whites and followed by the formation of a majority government.
Though UN has proved failure in maintaining peace in many parts of the world, it has attempted to make peace by negotiating many peaceful settlements which ended regional disputes. For example the UN succeeded to end Iran — Iraq war, the withdrawal of soviet from Afghanistan and an end of civil war in EL Salvador.
UN has tried to promote development of people in the member states. For instance the United Nations Development programme (UNDP) and other agencies of UN carries out projects for agriculture, industry, education and environment. It is said that UNDP supports more than 5000 projects with a budget of $ 1.3 billion. UNICEF spends more than $.800 million a year on immunization, health care, nutrition and basic education in 138 countries. In areas where these projects exist they lower poverty levels.
The United Nations has been able to provide humanitarian aid to the victims of conflict in Sudan, Somalia and other states. There so many refugees who receive aid from the UN High commissioner for Refugees since 1951. It eliminates scourges of war or conflicts from the Africans.
Problems Facing the United Nations
United Nations faces many problems in its daily activities. The most significant problems include:
Non compliance of UN decisions is a problem. Some members especially developed countries like USA and Britain some times do not comply with the decisions which prevent these countries from taking action against the other states. For instance UN disapproved US invasion of Iraq but the USA and Britain could not respect the decisions. They invaded Iraq in 2003.
UN’s veto among the five permanent members of the Security Council hinders just decisions and course of action. When one of its members cast a veto vote all the decisions get blocked. This has been used by the big powers to serve their own interests as opposed to the general interests of the members.
There have been inter-states and civil wars among the members. For example the war between Tanzania and Uganda in 1979 destroyed many properties. Civil wars have occurred in Rwanda in 1994, Liberia in 1997 and Southern Sudan for a long period of time. Many people have lost their life.
Though the UN give humanitarian aid to improve the living standards of people, the organization still has mainly third world countries which suffer from poverty which endangers peace and security in the world.
Benefits of United Nations to African States
African states benefit from being members of the United Nations. The benefits, which can be, shown below are:
Many African states which do not have enough food for their people in some parts of Their countries receive food aid from the World Food Programme (WFP) of the UN. This assistance has been given to the people in Somalia and Sudan.
African states normally attempt to improve health standards of their people through vaccination services which are conducted by the World Health Organization under the United Nations. In the present UNAIDS gives fund to fight against HIV/AIDS in African states.
African states receive financial help from UNDP to invest in sectors of education and water services.
The UN Security Council always sends forces to keep peace, order and end violence in areas which have civil wars. For example UN peace keeping forces have been sent to Liberia and Democratic Republic of Congo to keep peace in these countries between 1995 and 2005.
UNO provides a platform to African states to air out their grievances against the mistreatments which are done over the people by the developed world. It can be used to influence policies of big powers to Africa.
Conclusion
The United Nations is very important organization for the countries in the world. Though it provides aid to African states and other countries outside Africa many member states complain against the UN. They see it as an organization which mainly works in favour of USA and European countries. UN has been found to take very slow action to solve problems in Africa. It neglected the civil war in Rwanda where about 800 000 people were killed by the rebels in 1994. Even the General Secretary, Kofi Anan admitted that UN had no active measures to end civil war in Rwanda. It normally carries out quick actions to end the crises in European countries. It can not be effective organization unless the UN treats all its members equally and conducts its functions fairly in all its organs.
COMMON WEALTH OF NATIONS
Common Wealth of Nations — Is a voluntary association of independent sovereign states mostly formed by the UK (Britain) arid its former colonies. The members of common wealth recognize Queen Elizabeth II as the head of the common wealth.
Its Origin
The Common wealth originated from the Imperial Conference of the late 1920’s which recognized the colonies which had self-government within the British Empire. Such colonies were Canada, Australia and New Zealand. They were considered as equal in status with Britain. In 1931 Britain made a statute of West Minster to establish Common wealth as an association of free and equal states and membership based on common allegiance to the British Crown. Many countries joined after Independence though many think it is after British imperialism.
THE ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (O.A.U)
The organization of African unity was founded on 25’ May 1963 in Addis Ababa Ethiopia by thirty- two heads of state of then independent African states the first chairman was Emperor Haile Sellasie of Ethiopia. This was inspired by pan — Africanist sentiment of bringing all people of African origin both in the Diaspora and Africa under a single organization, to fight and protect their rights.
Nkurumah one of the pioneers of African union and the founding father of Ghana was greatly influenced by his education in USA. he believed that the only way to achieve complete economic as well as political freedom from European domination was to create a powerful new ‘United states of Africa’ then through continental wide cooperation, Africa would really take place on the world economic and political stage on terms o equality. In unity Nkrumah saw strength, but in practical terms his dream proved illusory.
OBJECTIVES OF O.A.U
The primary aim of OAU was to promote African unity and solidarity as the only way forward to achieve complete economic as well as political freedom from other countries of the world, because unity and solidarity would make Africa a superpower among other countries.
To co-ordinate and intensify the cooperation and the efforts of African states to achieve a better living of people of Africa and also to help the speeding up of the decolonization in the rest of Africa.
To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African states, one of the OAU principle states the acceptance of the principle of non interference in internal affairs of member state.
To eradicate all forms of colonialism in Africa and acts of slavery in the entire continent of Africa by promoting freedom and human rights to be given first priority.
To promote international cooperation in accordance of the United Nations Organization and the universal declaration of human rights.
PRINCIPLES OF O.A.U
The existence of sovereign equality of all members.
Non interference in the internal affairs of the member states.
Respect for the sovereignty and the inalienable right to independent of all member states
Peaceful settlement of disputes by negotiation, mediation and conciliation or arbitration
The affirmation of the policy of non-alignment
Unreserved condemnation of political assassination as well as of subversive activities against any member state.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF O.A.U
It achieved to unite the diverse countries of Africa; this has been attained despite discrepancies in political ideology, levels of economic development, language colonial experience and vast geographical differences. There was of course disagreement between states and groups of states but its main aim was unity and OAU survived its first three decades with no permanent sprit.
It has achieved in providing a forum for discussing common problems of African states and offering solution like discrimination or apartheid, diseases and civil wars among others. Which to a big extent have been dealt with.
The regular meetings of ministers and heads of state have helped to generate greater awareness of other countries problem
OAU has also achieved in Liberation’ of Africa from colonialism e.g. Zimbabwe, Angola, and Namibia, through the provision of moral and material support to .the nationalistic movements in various nations.
The African development bank, which grew out of the OAU in 1967, became an invaluable tool for mobilizing world finance for Africa development projects. The idea of coordinating and mobilizing international capital for the benefit of Africa was of particular value during the 1 970s and early 1 980s.
O.A.U has provided many African refugees with jobs and education, who came as a result of internal conflicts in various African nations
The organization has taken measures to improve agriculture, industry, transport and communication trade and education cooperation in various countries.
The meeting of heads of states each year to discuss the problems and achievement of the continent is one of the achievements.
Many conflicts have been solved by the organization in the continent e.g. the war between Tanzania and Uganda 1978, Mali and Burkina Faso 1985, Kenya and Somalia 1970 etc.
OAU has encouraged Regional integration among is member states, such as ECOWAS 1975, SADC 1980, COMESA 1993, has its roots from O.AU.
OAU has achieved in acting as chief mediator between various African states to avoid the occurrence of bloodshed e.g. between Ethiopia and Eritrea.
PROBLEMS OF O. A. U
A member state decides individually and voluntarily to be the member of the organization and it could withdraw its membership at any time that it fills to do so, this weakens the strength of the organization e.g Morroco is not a member.
Another big problem that faced OAU was that it had no legal sanction to enforce its resolutions. Member state could decide to refuse or ignore to implement the organizations decisions, that is why it has always been blamed for being little more than ‘a talking-shop’ with no serious implementation of her resolutions.
Lack of adequate funds it largely based on the annual contributions of member states Most of the member states delayed to pay or defaulted to pay their contributions, this made the organization to fail to run its activities.
Unequal development of the members of the organization caused by poverty, illiteracy, and unequal distribution o resources.
There are many refugees in Africa which is the result of civil wars in many areas of the continent such as Burundi, D.RC, Sudan, Somalia, etc.
The continent is still poor depending on debts and loans from World Bank and I.M.F, with difficult conditionalities to fulfill.
Differences in languages and religion, some societies are proud of their mother tongue; other countries are using English, others Arabic, French etc every state/tribe wants to use the language of her interest. There is tension between fundamentalist Muslims who want to apply Sharia law while Christians wants western system of democracy.
African countries are affected by natural disasters such as drought, floods, earthquake, A.I.D.S, etc these affects the welfare of the people.
Difference in ideology of the member states, head of states are unable to come together to discuss their problems.
Lack of a single currency to be used by all member states since it isn’t decided on to be used; this hinders trade activities in the continent.
Weak economic base of many of the member states most of the member state had just got their independence from European imperialist nations; all are based on production of primary goods of agriculture products and minerals that fetched little prices.
The Formation of AU (AFRICAN UNION)
AU is the organization of African countries which originally started by the declaration to the heads of states and Government of the O.A.U. to establish African Union on 9 —9-1999. The Constitutive Act of the African Union was adopted and entered into force in 2000 at the Lome summit in Togo. In 2001 the African countries putdown the plan for the implementation of the Union in Lusaka while in 2002 they held the first Assembly of the Heads of states of AU in Durban where Thabo Mbeki of South Africa became the 1t chairman. Its headquarters are in Addis-Ababa, Ethiopia
The Reason Which Led to the Rise of AU
The fulfillment of the basic O.A.U objectives led to the formation of AU. Formerly O.A.U. had succeeded to achieve such objectives like eradication of colonialism in Mozambique, Angola , Zimbabwe, and destruction of apartheid in South Africa. Then, the leaders realized that there was a need to create a new organization which dealt with the social, economic and political problems in the rapid changing world in 1990’s. During this time Africa faced economic decline, unfavourable economic relationship with the developed nation and the rise of new political systems. There was a need to make an organization to unite Africans against the problems from the situation which prevailed at the moment.
Objectives /Goals of AU
African Union has so many objectives:
To achieve greater unity and solidarity between the African countries and the people themselves.
To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of members.
To accelerate or increase the political and socio-economic integration (unity) of the continent.
To promote and defend African common positions on issues of interest to the continent and its people.
To, encourage international co-operation in line with the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
To promote peace, security and stability in Africa.
To promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation and goods governance.
To promote and protect human and peoples’ rights in line with the African charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and other relevant human rights instruments.
To establish the necessary conditions which enable Africa to play its rightful role in the global or world economy through international negotiations.
To promote sustainable development at the economic, social and cultural levels as well as the integration of economies.
To promote co-operation in all fields of human activity to raise the living standard of African peoples.
To coordinate and harmonize the policies between the existing and future Regional Economic communities and the gradual achievement o the objectives of AU.
To enhance the development of the continent promoting research in all the fields especially Science and technology.
To work with relevant international partners in the elimination of preventable disease and the promotion of health on the continent.
The Organs of the African Union
A.U has about 10 organs which included:
(1) The Assembly- It is a supreme organ of the Union. It is composed of heads of states and Government. It has to meet at least once a year in ordinary session, at the request of any member state and on approval by a two thirds majority of member states. It is headed by a chairman for a period of one year.
Its functions are:-
Determine the common policies of the Union.
Receive, consider and take decision on reports and recommendations from the other organs of the Union.
Consider requests for membership of the Union.
Establish any organ of the Union.
Monitor the implementation of policies and decisions of the Union as well as ensure compliance by all members.
Adopt the budget of the Union.
Give directives to the Executive council on the management of conflict war and restoration of peace.
Appoint and terminate appointments of judges of the court of justice
Appoint the Chairman of the commission and his or her deputy and the commissioners as well as determining their functions and terms of office.
(2) The Executive Council — It is composed by the ministers of Foreign Affairs or such other Ministers as decided by Member states. The Executive Council meets twice a year in ordinary session. It also has to meet in extra ordinary session at the request of any member states and upon approval of 2/3 of all members.
(3) The Pan - African Parliament - It is established in order to provide a chance for full participation of African people in the development and economic integration of the continent. The first speaker has been Gertrude Mongella from Tanzania since 2004. The post will be succeeded by many officials from the members in future.
(4) The African court of Justice- when it is fully established its functions and -composition will be given by the union.
(5) The commission - It is the secretariat of the union. It is composed of the chairman, his deputies and the commissioners together with other staff. The Assembly is responsible to provide the functions and regulations of the commission. The current chairman of the commission is H.E. Alpha Oumar Konare of Mali.
(6) The Permanent Representative Committee - It is charged with the responsibility of preparing the work of Executive council. ft acts also on the instructions of Executive council. It may set up sub-committee or groups as it sees necessary
(7) The Specialized Technical Committees - it includes:
The committee on Rural Economy and Agricultural matters.
The committee on Monetary and Financial Affairs.
The committee on Trade, Customs and Immigration Matters.
The committee on Industry, Science and Technology, Energy Natural Resources and Environment.
The committee on Transport, Communications and Tourism.
The committee on Labour, Health and Social Affairs.
The committee on Education, Culture and Human resources. -
The Assembly has to restructure the existing committees and establish others. The body is composed by ministers with competence of respective areas.
The functions of the committees are:
To prepare projects and programmes of the Union and submit it to the Executive council.
Ensure the supervision, follow-up and the evaluation of the implementation of decisions taken by organization of the union.
Coordinate the projects and programmes of the Union.
Submit reports and recommendations on the implementations of the Act of the Union to the Executive council.
Carry out other functions as assigned to any of the committees.
(8) The Economic Social and Cultural Council -This is an advisory organ which is made of professional groups of the member states. All its functions have to be given out by the Assembly.
(9) The Peace and Security Council —It is a body which will deal with peace keeping and conflicts settlements in the member states.
(10) The Financial Institutions — The Union intends to have the African central Bank, the Africa monetary fund and the African Investment Bank to provide financial help to its members.
Problems Which Threaten future success of AU
There are so many problems:
Lack of fund —most of its member are poor nations. It does not get enough money to run its activities.
Civil war in countries such as Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Sudan, Northern Uganda seem to keep these countries far from the goals of AU.
Corruption such as mismanagement of public money by the leader like former president of Zambia, Mr. Chiluba discourages good governance which is on of the interests of AU.
Poor infrastructure such as roads, railways and water ways continued to weaken smooth transport of raw materials from productive areas to industries as well as transport of products from towns to the rural areas.
Epidemics such as HIV/AIDs kills skilled labour which would have been used by AU to develop many sectors like agriculture, industries, fishing and tourism.
Unfovaurable economic relationship between African countries and developed nations still makes African countries fall behind than what is required in economic and social development. They export products to world market and sell them at lower price which in turn could not develop the AU members. All these problems threaten future success of AU.
The Benefits of AU to Tanzania
There are so many benefits which will be acquired by Tanzania from being a member of AU. The benefits include:
Tanzania would get an opportunity to unite with other African countries to solve political conflicts peacefully in several African states and the country will use AU to discuss for the presence of good relationship between Africa, Europe and U.S.A.
Tanzania will make friendship with other African countries through the joint activities and programmes in social and economic sectors. This condition would reduce the number of countries which might have intended to act as enemies of Tanzania on the continent.
Tanzania will get new ideas and information that will be used to solve many problems which exist in agriculture, industry and the 1ea4Th sectors. They will be obtained from various meetings and workshops attended by the leaders of the government.
The financial institutions such as the African central bank and the African investment bank obviously would provide money as loans and grants to Tanzania. The money would be used by the country to develop agricultural production, science and technology, transport and education.
NEPAD (The New Partnership for Africa’s Development)
New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) in the 21st century is a started programme under African Union which intends to bring political, social and economic development in the 21st century.
The Origins of NEPAD
The NEPAD came from a mandate given to the five initiating Heads of States in Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria, Senegal and South Africa by the Organization of African Unity (OAU) to develop an integrated socio-economic development framework for Africa. The 37th Summit of OAU in July, 2001 officially adopted NEPAD as a strategic framework document for African development.
The NEPAD Objectives
To eradicate poverty.
To place African countries, both individual and collectively, on a path of sustainable growth and development;
To halt the marginalization of Africa in the globalization process and advance its full and beneficial integration into the global economy.
To accelerate the empowerment of women.
The Principles of NEPAD
Good governance as a basic requirement for peace, security and sustainable political and socio-economic development;
African ownership and leadership, as well as broad and deep participation by all sectors of society; in the realization of African development.
Bring the development of Africa on its resources and resourcefulness of its people. The principle likely encourage self reliance of African countries.
Partnership between and amongst African peoples in performing various socio-economic development programmes.
Acceleration of regional and continental integration among members of African Union.
Building the competitiveness of African countries and the continent in the world economy.
Forging a new international partnership that changes the unequal relationship between Africa and the developed world; and
Ensuring that all Partnership programme with NEPAD are linked to the Millennium Development Goals and other agreed development goals and targets of the United Nations.
The NEPAD Priorities
The priorities of NEPAD are chosen key areas which have to draw the attention of the members. They are divided into three areas such as:
(a) Establishing the conditions for sustainable development by ensuring
Peace and security exist in African countries.
Democracy and good political, economic and good governance among the people of Africa.
Regional co-operation and integration whereby all countries have to work together for their own development.
Provision of help which enables African states achieves prosperity.
(b) Policy change and increased investment in the following priority sectors such as:
Agriculture which intends to bring food once it is improved.
Human development with a focus on health, education, science and technology and skills development.
Building and improving infrastructure, including Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Energy, Transport, Water and Sanitation.
Promoting diversification of production and exports, particularly with respect to agro-industries, manufacturing, mining, mineral beneficiation and tourism.
Accelerating intra-African trade and improving access to markets of developed countries.
The protection of environment in Africa.
(c) Mobilizing Resources by
Increasing domestic savings and investments.
Improving management of public revenue and expenditure by avoiding misuse of the revenue.
Improving Africa’s share in global trade by exporting products to be sold at fair prices.
Attracting foreign direct investment to African countries.
Increasing capital flows through further debt reduction and increase of aid flows to African countries. Members should work to eliminate debt problem.
Desired Outcomes of NEPAD
NEPAD laid down its outcomes in Africa. The most important outcomes are:
Africa becomes more effective in conflict prevention and the establishment of enduing peace on the continent.
Africa adopt and implements principles of democracy and good political economic and good governance, and the protection of human rights becomes further entrenched in every African country.
Africa develops and implements effective poverty eradication programmes and accelerates the pace of achieving African development goals, particularly human development.
Africa achieves increased levels of domestic savings, as well as investments, both domestic and foreign investments.
Africa achieves desired ability for policy development, coordination and negotiation in the international cooperation, to ensure its beneficial engagement in the world economy, especially on trade and market access issues.
Regional integration is further accelerated and higher levels of sustainable economic growth in Africa would be achieved.
Genuine partnerships will be established between Africa and the developed countries based on mutual respect and equality.
THE STRUCTURE OF NEPAD
The structure of NEPAD is the organs which implement the decisions passed by the member countries to achieve objectives. The highest authority of the NEPAD implementation process is the Heads of States and Government Summit of the African Union, formerly known as the O.A.U.
The Heads of State and Government Implementation Committee (HSIC) Comprises 3 states per AU region as mandated by the OAU Summit of July 2001 and ratified by the AU Summit of July 2002. The HSIC reports to the AU Summit on an annual basis.
The Steering Committee of NEPAD comprises the Personal Representatives of the NEPAD Heads of State and Government. This Committee oversees projects and programme of development.
The NEPAD Secretariat coordinates implementation of projects and programmes approved by the HSI (The Heads of States and Government Implementation Committee).
EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY (E.A.C)
BACKGROUND
It was founded on 6 June 1967; the government of Tanganyika, Kenya and, Uganda signed a treaty in Kampala Uganda. Its history goes back to 1923 when the governor of Tanganyika, Kenya, and Uganda formed the East African Governors Conference to facilitate the cooperation. In 1948 it changed to East Africa high Commission, in 1961 the East Africa common services organization was established.
AIMS OF THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY
To promote free trade in goods and services produced among the members.
To provide common services such as railways, harbors, posts and telecommunication.
To provide wider and more secure market for industrial and agricultural goods
To allow free movement of people in the region for trade recreation and other social activities.
To achieve technological innovation and advancement.
To conduct research activities in agriculture, population, medicine and mining for its development.
It aims at solving region problems jointly by the heads of the member states
PROBLEMS OF E.A.C
The problem of the distribution of different services, the distribution was more beneficial to Kenya than Uganda and Tanzania.
Border conflicts e.g. between Tanzania and Uganda during ldd Amin.
The ideological disparity between the three countries, Tanzania self reliance and socialism, Kenya capitalist ideology, Uganda during Idd Amin fascism.
Uneven distribution of the community cake, Kenya took a lion share at the expense of Uganda and Tanzania.
The organization had its roots from colonial period nothing changed fundamentally that
Britain went on benefiting through Kenya.
The East African Bank failed a balance development of industries in the three countries Kenya benefited more than Tanzania and Uganda in income tax and custom duties.
Currency differences the governments restricted free transfer and exchange of currency. This discourages interstate transactions in goods.
The community experienced great losses and debts.
The failure of the member country to contribute the agreed fees
THE SOUTHERN ARICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY -S.A.D.C.
It was formed as the replacement of Southern African Development coordination Conference-SADCC formed in I 980.It was in 1993 when it was changed to SADC. This is an association of eleven countries such as Angola, Botswana. Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia Zimbabwe and South Africa.
OBJECTIVES SADC
To help member states to have a genuine and equitable regional integration.
To mobilize the regional resources for their benefit.
To foster international cooperation.
To enhance the development o industries, trade mining and agriculture and energy resources.
To improve transport and communication links.
To improve internal market.
PROBLEMS OF SADC.
Weak financial base, members rely on foreign aid and loan.
Members produce similar agricultural goods such as coffee, sisal, tobacco which compete for market.
All members depend on agriculture rather than industries, when the price of agricultural commodities fluctuates which leads to low earnings.
Lack of qualified and skilled man power to run the organization, they depend on foreign experts.
Unequal distribution of the benefits of the association discourages other states.
Every member tries to cater her national interest first rather than those of SADC
THE COMMON MARKET FOR EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA (COMESA)
Before 1993 COMESA was known as the Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern Africa- P.T.A. The heads of member states met in Kampala Uganda on 61h November 1993 and signed a treaty which created COMESA. A member of COMESA includes Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Lesotho Botswana, Swaziland, Mauritius, Comoro, Djibouti, Ethiopia Somalia and South Africa.
OBJECTIVES OF COMESA
Promoting and facilitating cooperation among member countries in trade, trade, transport and communication.
Harmonizing and coordinating development strategies, policies and plans within the region
It encourages cooperation in monetary and financial affairs in order to facilitate sub regional integration.
It aims at establishing joint industrial and agricultural institution to raise the production capacity.
It aims at reducing and eventually eliminating tariffs among members in order to facilitate trade
It encourages economic independence of the region by establishing strong economic base
ACHIVEMENT OF COMESA
Member states have become more cooperative in the field of trade of trade, industry and agriculture.
The organization has also established a bank known as the trade and development bank situated in Bujumbura Burundi which finances trade and development projects
PROBLEMS OF COMESA
Different levels of development of member states
Poor transport shipping facilities and communication links
Existence of too many currencies in the region
Weak economic base of member states ie dependency economies
Civil wars, natural calamities and neo colonialism
The Reasons Which Made Tanzania Withdraw From COMESA:
As shown earlier Tanzania withdrew from COMESA in 2002. There are various reasons which made this country move out of the organization.
Firstly, Tanzania was discouraged by political conflicts in Zimbabwe and Civil war in Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia. She realized there could not be effective economic co-operation with the members which had these problems at the moment.
Secondly, the country wanted to maximize her efforts in some organizations like East African Community which was formed in early 2000s’. The government could not be able to unite fully with other EAC if she was still a member in many other organizations.
Thirdly, Tanzania withdrew from COMESA because she was avoiding duplication of regional co-operation. The country learnt that there was no new benefits the people could get from COMESA. Most of the benefits were similar with those which were gained from SADC and EAC.
Fourthly, financial contributions to various economic organizations became a burden on the government expenditure. The country could not be able to collect and spend money in many organizations like SADC, EAC, AU and COMESA. Withdrawal from COMESA was a way to reduce financial cost on regional co-operation
Fifthly, Tanzania moved out of COMESA as a way to protect its industrial development from other COMESA members such as Kenya, South Africa and Zimbabwe. This country still lagged behind in industries. She feared that those countries could use many opportunities in regional co-operation to export manufactured goods which could compete against the products from Tanzania industries. Thus, she withdrew to protect domestic industries and their markets.
All the points given above could explain the possible reasons which made Tanzania move out of COMESA in 2002
THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS)
The economic community of west Africa was found on 28thi may 1975, member states includes Guinea ,Ivory Coast ,Mauritania ,Senegal ,Benin ,Mali ,Niger ,Burkina Faso ,Gambia, Ghana ,Sierra Leon ,Liberia, Guinea Bissau, Togo, Cameroon ,Cape Verde and Nigeria.
AIMS OF ECOWAS.
ECOWAS aimed at removing barriers and allowing free movement of people services and capital for the development of the member states.
It aims at developing industries, agriculture and mining by using good and applicable policies.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF ECOWAS
The organization has managed to set energy resource development fund for oil mining industry in the region.
There have been agriculture and communication development of the whole part of the region this has been through special fund to develop the projects and through joint ventures between members.
PROBLEMS OF ECOWAS.
Each member wants to benefit more than the other members of the community according to their interests.
Political instability affects member states, there have been civil wars and coup d’état in ‘the region e.g. Nigeria, Sierra Leon, Liberia, Ivory Coast etc.
Poor communication network system in many parts of the region hinders organization activities to all places
Language differences, other members are using English others French, this causes communication barrier between members.
Lack of a single currency creates the problem of the rate of exchange between the member states.
The problem of members to have a membership in more than one organization, all the organization have demands in terms of contributions i.e. it’s difficult to contribute membership to all the organizations due to poverty.
AFRICA IN THE WORLD INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
The world international organizations are referred as co-operation between the countries which exist in the world between various continents. This sub-topic intends to examine the origin objectives and the way African countries have joined and benefited from the world international organizations popularly mentioned as the United Nations, Common wealth of Nations, the French Community and Non —Aligned Movement (NAM).
United Nations (UN)
United Nation (UN) is an organization of the world independent countries which was formed to promote and maintain international peace and security after the failure of the League of Nations in the prevention of the rise of the Second World War of 1939-1945.
The charter of the formation of UN was originally drawn by the representatives of 50 countries in San Francisco USA on 26th June - 1945. But the representatives made the charter on the basis of the ideas and proposal given out by the delegates from China, USSR, UK and U.S.A in 1944. After its formation Poland immediately signed the charter and became one of the original 51 member states of the UN.
The UN officially came into existence on 24th October —1945 when the charter was formally approved by China, France, the Soviet Union (USSR) UK (Britain) and USA and by a majority of other countries. Its headquarters today are in New York USA and the United Nations day is always celebrated on 24thOctober each year.
Objectives of United Nations
Objectives of UN are all the desired ends which UN intends to achieve as the members work together as world independent states. Objectives are:
Maintain peace and security internationally.
Develop friendly relations among nations.
Encourage international co-operation in solving economic, social, political and humanitarian problems.
Promote international respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
UN becomes a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in attainment the objectives
The Principles of UN
The principles are guidelines of UN as it works to achieve its goals. The principles are:
All its member states are sovereign and equal.
All its members have to fulfill in good faith the charter obligations
All its member countries have to solve international conflicts peacefully without jeopardizing peace, security and justice.
Members must avoid the threat or use of force against other states.
Members should provide any help in the action it takes.
Members should not give help to any nation being under punitive measures.
Non members have to act according to these principles in order to maintain world peace and security.
UN should not interfere in internal matters of any nation:
The Organs of UN
There are important organs through which UN performs its duties such organs include.
(a)The UN General Assembly: - This is an organ made by all member states. All member states always have one vote regardless of size and powers. Decisions on issues require two thirds of members votes. It functions are:
Recommends on the world peace, security, disarmament and regulation of armament
Discuss any matter which endangers peace and security.
Elects non-Permanent members of security council and Judge of International court of justice jointly with the security Council
The latest UN General Assembly took place in September, 2004, in New York, U.S.A
(b) Secretariat — it is an organ which is headquartered in New York, USA. It contains international civil servants under the leadership of the General secretary who is appointed by the General Assembly on the basis of recommendations by the Security Council.
There have been several General Secretaries since the creation of this organ. These officials by their names included:
Trygve Lief of Norway from 1946-1952.
Dag Hammarskjold of Sweden from 1953-1 961.
UThantMyanmar(Burma) 1961-1971.
Kurt Waldheim of Austria from 1972-1981.
Javier de Perez de Cuellar of Peru from 1982-1991.
Boutros Bountros —Ghali of Egypt from 1992-1996.
Kofi Anan of Ghana from 1997-2006
Ban Ki-Moon of South Korea from 2007 to the present until the appointment of new secretary.
The Secretariat carries out important functions such as:
i. It administers peace keeping operations in many countries which have wars and conflicts.
ii. It implements the decisions of the General Assembly and the Security Council.
iii. Informs the world’s communications media about the work of United Nations.
iv. It mediates international disputes.
v. Interprets speeches and translate documents into the UN’s official languages.
vi. It draws annual budget of the UN
(c) The Security - It an organ which makes decisions that bind all other UN members. Before 1963 the council had only eleven members of which 6 members were elected by the General Assembly for a two years terms and there was also five permanent members. After 1963 the number of members increased to fifteen including the permanent members such as Britain, USA, France, USSR and China and Ten Non-Permanent members continued to be elected for two years terms.
The UN Secretary Council has a veto vote in which all the decisions can not be passed unless all five permanent members approve the decisions. When any permanent member casts a “No” vote the decision automatically get blocked. This situation creates dissatisfaction among other members; today they demand more enlargement of the permanent membership seat so as to include many countries from Africa, Asia, and Latin America in deciding matters of the UN. They also recommend the elimination of veto which is used to defend the interests of few people.
The functions of UN Security Council are:
Maintain international peace and security in line with the principles and purposes of the United Nations.
To investigate any conflict or situation which can lead to international war
To formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armament.
To persuade members of UN to fix sanctions on the aggressive states.
Takes military actions against the aggressors.
Recommends the admission of new members.
Recommends the appointment of the secretary - General to the UN General Assembly.
Works with the General Assembly to elect the judges of International court of Justice.
(d) International court of Justice- This is a court of 15 judges who are elected by the General Assembly and Security Council. It has headquarters at Hague, Netherlands. Its judges are elected for 9 years. The court normally deals with all matters of the UN charter. However, the decisions only advise the General Assembly and the Security Council.
(e) Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) - It is an organ which works through UN specialized agencies and other autonomous bodies in the UN system. It promotes high standard of living, economic and social development as well as respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. There are several UN specialized agencies under ECOSOC. Some of those institutions include:
(i) FAQ - (Food and Agriculture organization) was founded in Quebec, Canada on 16th October, 1945
(ii) ILO — (International Labour organization) - It was firstly formed under the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. It allied with UN as specialized agency to raise up the living standard of the workers.
(ii) UNESCO - (The UN International Children and Education Fund). It was founded in December1946 to provide care for children.
(iv) WHO — (The World Health organization). It was founded on 7th —April —1947 as autonomous organization to improve health for all people in the world. Its head office is in Paris, France . It has worked under ECOSOC to eliminate health problems in the world.
(v) UNHCR - (The UN High Commission For Refugees). It started in 1951 to help people who are forcefully shifting their nations as refugees.
(vi) UNCTAD - (The Conference on Trade and Development). It began on 20th December, 1994 to promote international trade
(vii) UNDP - (The UN Development Programme it was formed in 1965
(viii) UNIDO — (The UN Industrial Development Organization) it was made in 1967 to promote industries.
(ix) GATT — (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) it was made in order to make the developed world fix lower tariffs and fair prices of products from developing countries.
(f) Trusteeship Council -It was an organ which was formed in 1945 to supervise the administration of the Trust territories .taken from the Mandate status of the League of Nations .The aim of the trusteeship council was to prepare the trust territories such as Tanganyika, Rwanda Burundi and Namibia for their self- government and independence. The council was allowed to examine and discuss the reports from the administering authority on the political, social and economic progress of people in the territories. The members of the council were, all. five permanent members of the Security council such as China, France, Russia, United Kingdom and U.S.A. The council suspended its duties on 1st, November, 1994 when Palau, the last remaining trust territory achieved independence on 1St November-1994.
The Achievements of UN
Since the creation of UN there have been several achievement reached by this organization. They included:
UN has assisted many countries in the struggle for independence. Many countries which are members of UN were helped by the organization in the elimination of colonialism. UN worked tirelessly in ending apartheid in South Africa. It put economic sanctions, arms embargo to the white regime. The United Nations General Assembly even called apartheid a crime against humanity. All these efforts led to the elections in April, 1994 in which African people got a chance to participate on equal terms with the whites and followed by the formation of a majority government.
Though UN has proved failure in maintaining peace in many parts of the world, it has attempted to make peace by negotiating many peaceful settlements which ended regional disputes. For example the UN succeeded to end Iran — Iraq war, the withdrawal of soviet from Afghanistan and an end of civil war in EL Salvador.
UN has tried to promote development of people in the member states. For instance the United Nations Development programme (UNDP) and other agencies of UN carries out projects for agriculture, industry, education and environment. It is said that UNDP supports more than 5000 projects with a budget of $ 1.3 billion. UNICEF spends more than $.800 million a year on immunization, health care, nutrition and basic education in 138 countries. In areas where these projects exist they lower poverty levels.
The United Nations has been able to provide humanitarian aid to the victims of conflict in Sudan, Somalia and other states. There so many refugees who receive aid from the UN High commissioner for Refugees since 1951. It eliminates scourges of war or conflicts from the Africans.
Problems Facing the United Nations
United Nations faces many problems in its daily activities. The most significant problems include:
Non compliance of UN decisions is a problem. Some members especially developed countries like USA and Britain some times do not comply with the decisions which prevent these countries from taking action against the other states. For instance UN disapproved US invasion of Iraq but the USA and Britain could not respect the decisions. They invaded Iraq in 2003.
UN’s veto among the five permanent members of the Security Council hinders just decisions and course of action. When one of its members cast a veto vote all the decisions get blocked. This has been used by the big powers to serve their own interests as opposed to the general interests of the members.
There have been inter-states and civil wars among the members. For example the war between Tanzania and Uganda in 1979 destroyed many properties. Civil wars have occurred in Rwanda in 1994, Liberia in 1997 and Southern Sudan for a long period of time. Many people have lost their life.
Though the UN give humanitarian aid to improve the living standards of people, the organization still has mainly third world countries which suffer from poverty which endangers peace and security in the world.
Benefits of United Nations to African States
African states benefit from being members of the United Nations. The benefits, which can be, shown below are:
Many African states which do not have enough food for their people in some parts of Their countries receive food aid from the World Food Programme (WFP) of the UN. This assistance has been given to the people in Somalia and Sudan.
African states normally attempt to improve health standards of their people through vaccination services which are conducted by the World Health Organization under the United Nations. In the present UNAIDS gives fund to fight against HIV/AIDS in African states.
African states receive financial help from UNDP to invest in sectors of education and water services.
The UN Security Council always sends forces to keep peace, order and end violence in areas which have civil wars. For example UN peace keeping forces have been sent to Liberia and Democratic Republic of Congo to keep peace in these countries between 1995 and 2005.
UNO provides a platform to African states to air out their grievances against the mistreatments which are done over the people by the developed world. It can be used to influence policies of big powers to Africa.
Conclusion
The United Nations is very important organization for the countries in the world. Though it provides aid to African states and other countries outside Africa many member states complain against the UN. They see it as an organization which mainly works in favour of USA and European countries. UN has been found to take very slow action to solve problems in Africa. It neglected the civil war in Rwanda where about 800 000 people were killed by the rebels in 1994. Even the General Secretary, Kofi Anan admitted that UN had no active measures to end civil war in Rwanda. It normally carries out quick actions to end the crises in European countries. It can not be effective organization unless the UN treats all its members equally and conducts its functions fairly in all its organs.
COMMON WEALTH OF NATIONS
Common Wealth of Nations — Is a voluntary association of independent sovereign states mostly formed by the UK (Britain) arid its former colonies. The members of common wealth recognize Queen Elizabeth II as the head of the common wealth.
Its Origin
The Common wealth originated from the Imperial Conference of the late 1920’s which recognized the colonies which had self-government within the British Empire. Such colonies were Canada, Australia and New Zealand. They were considered as equal in status with Britain. In 1931 Britain made a statute of West Minster to establish Common wealth as an association of free and equal states and membership based on common allegiance to the British Crown. Many countries joined after Independence though many think it is after British imperialism.
Maoni